A Few American Traditions Regarding Independence Day

A Few American Traditions Regarding Independence Day A few Ways of How Americans Celebrate July 4 Marches, firecrackers and grills are the words that portray Independence Day the best. Ball games are additionally mainstream on this day. All individuals get along with their relatives, dearest companions just as neighbors so as to eat delectable food, jabber and set off awesome firecrackers. The occasion was built up in 1941. Be that as it may, even during the 1700s Americans observed Independence Day. All began on July 2, in 1776, when the Continental Congress decided in favor of autonomy. Subsequently, the representatives received the Declaration of Independence on July 4. The war for freedom began in 1775 and completed distinctly in 1783. The British left the provinces in America and the United States increased a chance to turn into an autonomous nation. From that time till these days, Americans have not overlooked each one of those fights, numerous passings, and the valor that the originators of the USA needed to have so as to express that America was free and Great Britain did n't have the authority over them.There is an incredible number of approaches to watch Independence Day. In this post, you will get to know the most acclaimed approaches to commend it. There is an incredible number of approaches to watch Independence Day. In this post, you will get to know the most popular approaches to praise it. Americans love marches. They as a rule start marches at 12 PM. The boulevards in many towns and urban areas are loaded up with team promoters, buoys and ponies, particularly when the climate is excellent. What's more, heaps of military units show up in the roads. Aside from that, there are walking groups and a great deal of banner waving. Grill is additionally a significant piece of the festival. On this day, basically in all areas, Americans cook flame broiled food like burgers, sausages, steaks, and so forth. Meeting up for a grill is an ideal plan to convey and celebrate on July 4. Most likely nobody can oppose purchasing firecrackers on this day. This has become an American convention to travel to a stand where all that stuff is sold and buy sparklers, Roman candles and ground blossoms. Additionally, in the event that you dont like doing firecrackers yourself, you can make the most of a chance to respect that others do that. For example, you could visit a firecracker appear. Shouldn't something be said about flying the banner of America? This sounds extremely incredible! On this day, the US military praise autonomy with saluting to the US banner. As indicated by the convention, troops should shoot 50 shots meaning the 50 conditions of the United States. You can likewise wave the banner and respect the individuals who made America a free nation.

Severe income disparity A review of the WEF’s global risk Free Essays

string(135) third idea utilized by Milanovic depends on the standard of treating everybody in a similar way, paying little mind to one’s nationality. Dynamic This paper gives a conversation of one of the most relentless worldwide dangers recognized by the WEF, specifically extreme pay disparity.The report centers around portraying the fundamental idea of this hazard alongside demonstrating its sign in both created and rising economies. Additionally, three particular ideas of estimating worldwide pay imbalance are introduced as dependent on Milanovic’s inquire about. We will compose a custom article test on Extreme salary uniqueness: An audit of the WEF’s worldwide hazard or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now The paper talks about various interconnected dangers to salary divergence, and gives proposals to progress. Presentation As indicated by the World Economic Forum (WEF), extreme pay uniqueness between the most extravagant and least fortunate residents has gotten one of the most generous dangers confronting the worldwide network in the 21st century (Global Risks 2012). The WEF has underlined the direness to handle pay abberations in light of the augmenting constant hole between the rich and poor people. This angle speaks to a genuine danger to social strength in the worldwide setting. The danger of extreme pay dissimilarity additionally raises worries about persevering downturn, which adversy affects white collar classes in created economies (Law et al. 2014). What's more, it has been demonstrated that the procedure of globalization has prompted a polarization of earnings in rising and creating economies. Recognized as a fundamental hazard, extreme pay divergence is characterized as the inconsistent appropriation of individual pay across various members in an economy. Pay disparity likewise alludes to the level of pay which compares to the level of populace (Armor et al. 2013). This idea is related with the thought of reasonableness, and it is normally viewed as unjustifiable if the rich residents have a significant segment of a country’s pay in contrast with delegates of their populace. In addition, the reasons for extreme salary dissimilarity will in general change by explicit qualities, for example, area, training, and societal position. It is essential to investigate the ramifications of such pay difference all around (Schneider 2013). This sort of imbalance is commonly estimated through the ‘Gini coefficient’, which gives satisfactory data about the method of how pay dispersion in a specific nation goes astray from the idea of immaculate value (Grabka and Goeb el 2014). The target of this paper is to investigate and basically dissect the WEF danger of extreme pay dissimilarity. Fundamental DIMENSIONS OF THE PROBLEM OF INCOME DISPARITY The convergence of generous financial assets in the hands of less people shows a noteworthy danger to settling worldwide political and monetary frameworks (Chang et al. 2013). Therefore, political associations take part in a procedure of tending to the requests and needs of financial elites, which are recognized in various economies, both created and creating. This happens to the impediment of standard residents, who show up unfavorably affected by serious pay divergence (Berveno 2014). The worldwide monetary emergency has started examine enthusiasm for investigating the components of pay difference over the world. Notwithstanding broad conversations on the negative effect of pay uniqueness in created and rising economies, this has not brought about sufficient answers for the issue (Lin et al. 2014). It very well may be contended that world heads and government officials join their endeavors to give a practical structure of how they can address the issue of pay uniqueness (Burz and Boldea 2012). The issue of augmenting pay disparity is fundamental in nature and is connected with political impact. The least fortunate residents on the planet typically will in general need access to present day financial and political frameworks that authorize explicit laws and guidelines (Pulok 2012). In created monetary frameworks, delegates of the low and white collar classes are normally found at the low degrees of society because of excessively expensive instruction and difficulties of getting credit offices. What's more, occupations with significant compensations have gotten rare (Chang et al. 2013). This develops as another contributing element to enlarging the hole between the most extravagant and least fortunate residents. Least QUALITY OF LIFE The conversation of a base personal satisfaction has been as of late started in the United States. The attention has been on keeping the pride and regard of people unblemished. However, it tends to be contended that Europeans are further developed than Americans as far as the conversation of the issue of extreme pay divergence (Bergh and Nilsson 2014). The hole between the most extravagant and least fortunate residents is for the most part clear in created economies, as per the WEF report (Global Risks 2012). Albeit such lopsided development is viewed as ordinary in developing markets, they are bound to confront the issue of salary imbalance sooner rather than later (Shin and Shin 2013). Some may contend that salary dissimilarity is an unavoidable result of free markets. In any case, there is no generous proof to help this case. There is no simple answer for the issue of pay disparity, however worldwide pioneers will in general recommend that equalization is principal (Bergh and Nilsson 2014). Government mediation may seem a pertinent answer for the issue. However, it ought to be viewed as that such intercession ought not negatively affect showcase proficiency. Government intercession might be centered around expanding market get to. Others and gatherings that hold an increasingly cynical view show that the powerlessness to impact government strategy can forestall the formation of any progressions that attempt to ease the issue of extreme salary difference (Global Risks 2012). Various CONCEPTS OF INEQUALITY Branco Milanovic is one of the primary scientists taking a gander at the issue of serious salary difference. He underlines three unmistakable ideas of disparity. The primary idea is related with the parts of unweighted worldwide disparity. It alludes to the utilization of GDP per capita and overlooks populace (Milanovic 1998). This sort of disparity has been continuously diminished over the most recent couple of decades. The subsequent idea identifies with populace weighted worldwide imbalance where it is accepted that all individuals in a nation get a similar pay (Pulok 2012). However, the exact number of agent people from every nation demonstrates its populace size. On the off chance that this measure is applied, apparently salary imbalance has diminished in the previous quite a while, despite the fact that it has extended in nations, for example, China and India (Bergh and Nilsson 2014). The third idea utilized by Milanovic depends on the rule of treating everybody in a similar way, paying little heed to one’s nationality. You read Serious pay divergence: A survey of the WEF’s worldwide hazard in class Paper models This has step by step become a worldwide estimation of pay uniqueness (Shin and Shin 2013). It very well may be recommended that by applying the proposed measure by and by, worldwide imbalance considerably expanded in the period from 1988 to 1993. Subsequently, the least fortunate 5% have lost practically 25% of their real salary, though the most extravagant residents have picked up roughly 12% (Milanovic 1998). Fundamental FINDINGS In the United States, the part of Accommodation and Food Services rises as the most inconsistent area in the US economy, overwhelmed by generous imbalance inside this industry (Auten et al. 2013). It has been shown that Accommodation and Food Services exhibited a CEO-to-specialist pay proportion of 543-to-1 of every 2012. The proportion of remunerating inexpensive food CEOs was around multiple times more contrasted with the salary of the normal cheap food workers around the same time (Ruetschlin 2014). Such salary divergence can be clarified with two basic components: high installments made to CEOs and destitution level pay got by normal workers in the business (Pulok 2012). In the table underneath, explicit data is introduced about the Gini Index, which is a standard proportion of family salary difference in a nation. The information is given by the CIA, as indicated by which the nation that positions most noteworthy regarding salary disparity is South Africa with a Gini Index of 65.0, while Sweden positions first with a Gini Index of 23.0 (Vogel 2012). These outcomes give significant ramifications into the extending hole of the most extravagant and least fortunate residents around the globe. Table 1: Income Disparity in Different Countries, 2012 By and large RankCountryGini Index 1Sweden23.0 5Norway25.0 13 Germany27.0 46United Kingdom34.0 58India36.8 62Japan37.6 85Russia42.0 92Iran44.5 95United States45.0 119Mexico51.7 135South Africa65.0 Besides, it has been contended that the abundance of the 1% most extravagant people on the planet adds up to around ?60.88tn (Wearden 2014). This is just about 65 fold the amount of as the measure of the least fortunate half over the world. It has been introduced proof that in the course of recent decades, the most extravagant residents have increased satisfactory political impact in order to turn fundamental arrangements in support of them (Auten et al. 2013). As indicated by Wearden (2014), charge rates material to the most extravagant residents have fallen in numerous nations. Since the 1980s, salary imbalance has continuously expanded, as roughly 70% of the worldwide populace will in general live in nations with widely communicated uniqueness as far as pay (Herzer and Nunnenkamp 2013). Assessments of public sentiment directed in various nations, for example, the United States, the United Kingdom, India and South Africa, demonstrated a pattern that most residents in every nation believe that the wealthiest people apply broad social and political impact (Xu and Garand 2010). INTERCONNECTED RISKS The worldwide danger of serious pay dissimilarity is connected with other interconnected dangers, a

Navigating the 4 Stages of a Relationship

Navigating the 4 Stages of a Relationship Relationships Spouses & Partners Print Navigating the 4 Stages of a Relationship By Allison Abrams, LCSW-R facebook twitter linkedin Allison Abrams, LCSW-R, is a licensed psychotherapist, mental health advocate, and author covering relationships, mindfulness, and self-care. Learn about our editorial policy Allison Abrams, LCSW-R Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on April 13, 2018 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on September 11, 2019  shironosov/Getty Images More in Relationships Spouses & Partners Marital Problems LGBTQ Violence and Abuse Falling in love is easy. Relationships are hardâ€"despite what Hollywood tries to sell  us. Like anything else in life worth having, relationships take work. Some couples will successfully weather the storms that inevitably arise, while others will simply drift apart. When it comes to coupling, there is no instruction manual.  Remember that old playground mantra: First comes love, then comes marriage, then comes so and so and a baby carriage? If only it were that simple. Though many continue to follow this traditional trajectory, more and more are choosing otherwise. Fewer couples are getting married, some are having children before marriage, and some are choosing not to have children at all. Every relationship, like every individual, is unique. Regardless of the path one chooses when it comes to romantic relationshipsâ€"whether it’s down the aisle or across continentsâ€"the inherent stages of love and attachment essentially remain the same. How well couples navigate these stages is often the key to their relationship satisfaction. Based on the work of top neuroscientists and “experts in love,”  below are the four stages of a relationship??â€"from falling in love to living happily ever after (or for a while)â€"ways to successfully navigate them and, most importantly, how to keep the spark alive. 1. The Euphoric Stage This is your brain on love. For the past several decades, Helen Fisher, Ph.D., neuroscientist and Senior Research Fellow at the Kinsey Institute, and Lucy  Brown, Ph.D., Clinical Professor in Neurology at Einstein College of Medicine in New York, have been studying the brain activity of people in love, from the early to the later stages.?? Brown says: In the early part of a relationshipâ€"the falling in love stageâ€"the other person is the center of your life. You forgive everything in these early stages. The other person has faults, and you see them, but it doesn’t matter. Maybe they leave their dirty dishes in the sink, but they make you laugh at least daily, so it’s okay. Good things outweigh the negative here. One of the most significant findings in their brain mapping studies determined to be a key factor in relationship success involves what Brown refers to as the suspension of negative judgment. “In this early stage, many people show a decrease in activity in the prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the brain that has to do with the negative judgment of people.” The longer a couple can maintain suspension of negative judgment toward each other,  the better the chances of success. When they followed up with participants, they found that couples who had stayed together for three  years or more had the most decreased activity in this part of the brain. Perhaps something for all of us to keep in mind. How long does the romantic phase last? Studies, Brown says, have estimated this euphoric stage to last anywhere from six months to two years. Although a small portion of the populationâ€"approximately 15 to 30 percentâ€"say they are still in love and that it still feels like the first six months, even after 10 or 15 years later. According to Brown: We dont know why this is. I dont necessarily think its because they have found their soulmates. I think its the person. Some people have an easier time rekindling the earlier stages. Not to say the rest of us cant. But for the general population, the intoxication of new love will eventually morph into the next stageâ€"that of early attachment. 2. The Early Attachment Stage In the previous stage of euphoric love, unconscious factors like attraction and the activation of the reward system take over. In Fisher and Brown’s studies, the brain scans of couples in the early stages of love showed high levels of dopamine, the chemical that activates the reward system by triggering an intense rush of pleasure. According to the authors, this has the same effect on the brain as taking cocaine.?? In this next stage, however, the more evolved part of the brain begins to take over, including the  ventral pallidum, the region of the brain  linked with feelings of attachment, and the attachment hormones, vasopressin, and oxytocin, sometimes referred to as “the love hormone.” You know when you’ve reached the early attachment stage when, according to Brown, “You can sleep! You’re not thinking about [your partner] 24 hours a day. It’s easier to do other things in your life.” Couples who were married at least one year described love differently. “It’s richer, deeper, it’s knowing them better.” Says Brown. “Memories have been integratedâ€"both positive and negativeâ€"you’ve gone through some difficulties, and you’ve developed a strong attachment.” 3. The Crisis Stage This is the make or break point for most relationships. What happens at this stage is crucial to what comes next. Brown refers to this as the ‘seven-year or five-year itch.’ “Almost every relationship has a drift apart phase,” she says, “Either you will keep drifting, or you will come back together. You need a crisis to get through and to be able to talk about it togetherâ€"you’ve both grown and changed.” For some couples, having children could be the fork in the road that will either solidify the relationship or cause so much stress that the relationship falls apart. If a couple can overcome a crisis successfully, they will then move on to the next stage of deep attachment. The 6 Best Online Marriage Counseling Programs 4. The Deep Attachment Stage The deep attachment stage is the calm after the storm. You know each other better now. You’ve been through the inevitable ups and downs, and you know you can deal with crises. And you’ve made a plan about how to deal with them in the future. When describing this stage of relationships, the term that Brown reiterates is “calm.” “When couples have been together for many years,” she says, “it’s just very very calm. And it’s secure.” The deep attachment stage can last a long time. If you’re lucky, it can last a lifetime. Keeping It Going So how can we keep love going, even a little bit? According to researchers, one of the single most effective ways of keeping the spark alive is novelty. Studies that have followed couples for years have found that doing new, exciting, and challenging activities together have huge benefits for relationships.?? Dr. Art Aron, one of Fisher and Brown’s chief collaborators, and his wife, Dr. Elaine Aron developed the “Self Expansion Model”  that  offers insight into the early stages of love and partly explains why the first few months of a new relationship feels so intoxicating.?? “When you enter into a relationship, you literally increase who you are. You take on and share in your partner’s perspective on the world in addition to your own, their social status, their resources. The benefits of new and challenging experiences together are enormous. And they last. Suspension of judgment, rekindling of the early stages and maintaining novelty,  just maybe the keys to cracking the code of lasting love.

The Reliability Of The Material - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 745 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/04/04 Category Biology Essay Level High school Tags: Animal Testing Essay Did you like this example? Animals have emotions just like humans which is why many people are against animal testing. However having products tested on animals shows the reliability of the material as well and the safety of it. This ongoing controversy of whether animals should be tested has it pros and cons. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Reliability Of The Material" essay for you Create order Animals will get hurt and some sadly die yet peoples health will benefit since products will be tested on animals first to make sure they are safe to use. The newspaper Love Your Dog, Support Animal Research, authored by Matthew R. Bailey claims that if you love your pet you should support animal testing. On the other side of the debate, Paula Moore in her article ?As the Netherlands Phases Out Animal Experimentation, Will Other Countries Follow? states that doing tests on animals should be illegal. To start of her article, Moore uses pathos to get to the readers feelings. Reading the article will show how horrible the vulnerable animals are left after experiments. The title states that Netherlands is working to end all experiments on animals it goes to show that if the Dutch government can make such massive decision about such topic other countries should follow too. Animals get treated very poorly infected with disease, force-fed chemicals, blinded, burned, mutilated and left to suffer without veterinary care inside laboratories which is very devastating since many defenseless animals die to this dreadful experiments. Animals have feelings just like animals and should be treated with respect. Moore grabs the attention of all the animal lovers by including scenarios in her article. She brings out all the horrific possible outcomes that could happen in the future if animal testing continues. For example, she says that there is better ways to conduct research in a more efficient way since it is morally wrong to poison, infect, burn and cut up animals in a laboratory. This just shows the readers how poorly animals get treated and how they end up. Animals cannot defend themselves from the start which is easy for scientists to just get them and experiment. Matthew R. Bailey begins his newspaper by using a great hook dog owners may soon be able to add years to their pets lives, thanks to an experimental antiaging pill this will get the readers to be thankful that such experiments exist. Basically what he is trying to say in other words is that if you love something let it go. He tries to convey a powerful message that if you love you dog, supporting animal research is the way to go. In the future they can come up with new medicines that can benefit both animals and humans without nobody getting hurt. He also used ethos in his article by saying animal food and vaccines all have been developed through humane research which he is correct since new creations are made thru various tests done. Bailey included various examples on how animal testing has helped cure many diseases and how it can be beneficial for them too since they are finding cures for them too. In the end of his newspaper he says the following discouraging studies condemns animals to unnecessary suffering and death from preventable illness this just goes to show that with animal research animals can prevent certain illness and even death. Including statistics about the disease Ebola shows both ethos and logos since the readers will find him credible for all the information he gathered including Journal of Infectious Diseases. Logos is used since he used data to back up his information which included the percentage of chimpanzee that Ebola has killed. Both authors used pathos in both of their essay to get to the readers heart. Paula Moore gave a insight of all the awful things that happen to animals in a laboratory. Including what animals go thru and how they are efficient methods to experimenting things. Meanwhile Paula Moore shows good points as to why it is beneficial to do animal research. Not only does it benefit animals with new creations to be made for them but also humans which will be useful for us not get harmed with new products being made. They both provided the readers with statistics on the outcomes of being against it and the benefits of supporting animal research. Moore made her point clear that there are better ways to conduct research rather than harming animals. Bailey noted that if you are a true animal lovers you should support animal research.

Essay about Causes and Consequences of Conflict - 1136 Words

Encountering Conflict - Secret river A conflicts importance lies not in its causes but in its consequences. In todays rising society, where we experience people willing to strive to their maximum potential by any means necessary, it becomes blatantly obvious to why we often overlook the implications we inflict on others. We are sometimes aware of our actions, acting in spite or in fear, and sometimes ignorant to the situation, unaware of the consequences we deliver. The question is however – where does the importance of conflict lie – in its causes? Or in its consequences? It seems evident that there are many people will use their spite and fear and perhaps even compassion to exacerbate conflict. People all too easily become to†¦show more content†¦A question rarely easy to answer, but an important one to decipher. It would be highly ignorant to say that the consequences are the most important aspect of conflict in all cases when it is evident that the causes play just as big a part. The Australian Aboriginals themselves had to adjust to survive. They had to find a way to live in this land after they first arrived. If Aboriginals were not to continue in conflict with the land and the others they shared it with, change became a necessity. Over time they developed a harmonious way to live and prosper within the limitations of their environment – a harmony that became enshrined within their culture. Modern Society is, at an incredible rate, exploiting and using up resources, that we will not have the luxury of 40,000 years to find a new way of life in order to survive. Our society could do worse than to try and learn a little from the first Australians. One only has to look at Kate Grenvilles main protagonist in The Secret River, William Thornhill, ending the book on his verandah, gazing wistfully out at the ridge across the river, willing an appearance by people of the Aboriginal clan he had been instrumental in displacing, and thinking the same thing. When considering the types of conflicts faced by individuals – personal conflict, interpersonal conflict and extra personal conflict, we must also acknowledge the moral dilemmas, such as racism or differences with immediate others andShow MoreRelatedThe Causes And Consequences Of Class Conflict Between The Bourgeoisie And The Proletariat1422 Words   |  6 PagesMarx s conflict theory has a very distinct ideology, it is stated that it mainly focuses on the causes and consequences of class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The Bourgeoisie represented the members of a higher society which held onto the majority of the wealth and means also known as the owners of the means of production and the capitalists. While the proletariat class was constructed by individuals who belong to the working class or the poor. 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The third maddening buzz Free Essays

Fear, disappointment, and disbelief filled my mind as I opened my tear filled, burning eyes.   Everything was a blur, as if it were surreal.   There was a massive amount of dust from the air bag, and smoke coming from under the hood of my car. We will write a custom essay sample on The third maddening buzz or any similar topic only for you Order Now    As I turn to my right, remembering Josh had been with me in the car, I begin to panic. All that I can see is his head against the windshield.   I begin to shout his name as I shake his shoulder.   â€Å"Josh   Josh, are you okay?   Say something†Ã‚  Ã‚   The weight of the world has just come crumbling down on me and from that moment on my life was changed forever. The third maddening buzz of my alarm woke me as I groggily slid out of bed, and into the shower.   It was the start of another routine morning, or so I thought.   I took a shower, and quarrelled with my sister over which clothes were mine to wear, and which were hers.   Luckily, it was Memorial Day, so we didn’t have school.   If it were a normal weekday, we would have surely been late. My boyfriend Josh decided to stop by to see me after I was finished my grooming routine.   While sitting at the table with my parents, Josh informs us that his parents have invited us to a picnic at their house today.   We decided that we should bring something, perhaps a watermelon or cantaloupe.   Without missing a beat, my parents advise me that I need to go to the store to pick these up. With music blasting and voices singing and talking, it was another typical ride to the store, only this time we didn’t make it very far.   We backed out of the driveway, after a white truck had passed.   I begin to speed up to the speed limit (25 miles per hour).   Josh is a neat freak, so as soon as we are on our way, he decides to round up the trash in my car. After going about a quarter of a mile down the road, only three houses away from my house, the white truck begins to turn left into a driveway.   Not thinking anything of it, I slowed down to give him time to get out of my lane. When he was out of the way I hit the gas again.   Within the blink of any eye, the white truck had shifted into reverse and backed into my lane.   I slammed on the brakes, the tires squealed, but it was too late. I opened my eyes, and gasped for air.   Fear filled my head. My eyes burned and stung.   It was hard for me to catch my breath.   The dust from my airbag was circulating within the car. In that very moment I kept saying to myself, â€Å"It was just a dream, I am still sleeping, you’ll wake up in a few minutes.† As the dust settles, I begin to see that this is no dream.   I could see the white truck in front of my car, and slightly on top of my hood.   Smoke begins to fill the air from the engine in my car.   I start feeling pain in my right foot, shooting up my right leg.   My chest hurt, as if someone was stomping on it.   I feel as if my neck is on the verge of snapping off of my body. As I am beginning to notice all of my bodily injuries, I remember that Josh had been riding with me. How to cite The third maddening buzz, Papers

Computer Graphics Essay Example For Students

Computer Graphics Essay Computer graphics This article is about graphics created using computers. For the article about the scientific study of computer graphics, see Computer graphics (computer science). For other uses, see Computer graphics (disambiguation). Computer graphics are graphics created using computers and, more generally, the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer. The development of computer graphics, or simply referred to as CG, has made computers easier to interact with, and better for understanding and interpreting many types of data. Developments in computer graphics have had a profound impact on many types of media and have revolutionized the animation and video game industry. Overview The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Typically, the term computer graphics refers to several different things: †¢ the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer †¢ the various technologies used to create and manipulate images †¢ the images so produced, and the sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content, see study of computer graphics Today, computers and computer-generated images touch many aspects of our daily life. Computer imagery is found on television, in newspapers, for example in their weather reports, or for example in all kinds of medical investigation and surgical procedures. A well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, theses, and other presentation material. History The advance in computer graphics was to come from one MIT student, Ivan Sutherland. In 1961 Sutherland created another computer drawing program called Sketchpad. Using a light pen, Sketchpad allowed one to draw simple shapes on the computer screen, save them and even recall them later. The light pen itself had a small photoelectric cell in its tip. This cell emitted an electronic pulse whenever it was placed in front of a computer screen and the screens electron gun fired directly at it. By simply timing the electronic pulse with the current location of the electron gun, it was easy to pinpoint exactly where the pen was on the screen at any given moment. Once that was determined, the computer could then draw a cursor at that location. Image types 2D computer graphics 2D computer graphics are the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models, such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images, and by techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves. D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography, technical drawing, advertising, etc.. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics, whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography. Pixel art Pixel art is a form of digital art, created through the use of raster graphics software, where images are edited on the pixel level. Graphics in most old (or relatively limited) computer and video games, graphing calculator games, and many mobile phone games are mostly pixel art. Vector graphics Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics, which is the representation of images as an array of pixels, as it is typically used for the representation of photographic images. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools. 3D computer graphics 3D computer graphics in contrast to 2D computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time viewing. Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as 2D computer vector graphics in the wire frame model and 2D computer raster graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D rendering techniques. 3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered graphic, the model is contained within the graphical data file. However, there are differences. A 3D model is the mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object. A model is not technically a graphic until it is visually displayed. Due to 3D printing, 3D models are not confined to virtual space. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering, or used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations. Computer animation Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (Computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films. Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by assorted attributes, such as transform values (location, orientation, scale; see Cartesian coordinate system) stored in an objects transformation matrix. Animation is the change of an attribute over time. Multiple methods of achieving animation exist; the rudimentary form is based on the creation and editing of keyframes, each storing a value at a given time, per attribute to be animated. The 2D/3D graphics software will interpolate between keyframes, creating an editable curve of a value mapped over time, resulting in animation. Other methods of animation include procedural and expression-based techniques: the former consolidates related elements of animated entities into sets of attributes, useful for creating particle effects and crowd simulations; the latter allows an evaluated result returned from a user-defined logical expression, coupled with mathematics, to automate animation in a predictable way (convenient for controlling bone behavior beyond what a hierarchy offers in skeletal system set up). Concepts and Principles Image An image or picture is an artifact that resembles a physical object or person. The term includes two-dimensional objects like photographs and sometimes includes three-dimensional representations. Images are captured by optical devices—such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water surfaces. A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional image in binary format as a sequence of ones and zeros. Digital images include both vector images and raster images, but raster images are more commonly used. Pixel In the enlarged portion of the image individual pixels are rendered as squares and can be easily seen. In digital imaging, a pixel (or picture element) is a single point in a raster image. Pixels are normally arranged in a regular 2-dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where more samples typically provide a more accurate representation of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three components such as red, green, and blue. Graphics Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs, drawings, line art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style. Rendering Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an artists rendering of a scene. Rendering is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. 3D projection D projection is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting. Ray tracing Ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of light through pixels in an image plane. The technique is capable of producing a very high degree of photorealism; usually higher than that of typical scanline rendering methods. The Miracle Worker EssayComputer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics (computational physics), astrophysics, chemistry and biology, human systems in economics, psychology, and social science and in the process of engineering new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those. Computer simulations vary from computer programs that run a few minutes, to network-based groups of computers running for hours, to ongoing simulations that run for days. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible (or perhaps even imaginable) using the traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling: over 10 years ago, a desert-battle simulation, of one force invading another, involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks, trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait, using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computer Modernization Program; a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation (2002); a 2. 4-million-atom model of the complex maker of protein in all organisms, a ribosome, in 2005; and the Blue Brain project at EPFL (Switzerland), began in May 2005, to create the first computer simulation of the entire human brain, right down to the molecular level. Digital art Digital art is an umbrella term for a range of artistic works and practices that utilize digital technology. Since the 1970s various names have been used to describe what is now called digital art including c omputer art and multimedia art but digital art is itself placed under the larger umbrella term new media art. The impact of digital technology has transformed traditional activities such as painting, drawing and sculpture, while new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual reality, have become recognized artistic practices. [ More generally the term digital artist is used to describe an artist who makes use of digital technologies in the production of art. In an expanded sense, digital art is a term applied to contemporary art that uses the methods of mass production or digital media. Education Education in the broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another. Etymologically the word education contains educare (Latin) bring up which is related to educere bring out, bring forth what is within, bring out potential and ducere to lead. Teachers in educational institutions direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. This process is sometimes called schooling when referring to the education of teaching only a certain subject, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is also education in fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition there is an array of education possible at the informal level, such as in museums and libraries, with the Internet and in life experience. Many non-traditional education options are now available and continue to evolve. Graphic design The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation. Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated. Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements. Infographics Information graphics or infographics are visual representations of information, data or knowledge. These graphics are used where complex information needs to be explained quickly and clearly, such as in signs, maps, journalism, technical writing, and education. They are also used extensively as tools by computer scientists, mathematicians, and statisticians to ease the process of developing and communicating conceptual information Information visualization Information visualization is the interdisciplinary study of the visual representation of large-scale collections of non-numerical information, such as files and lines of code in software systems, library and bibliographic databases, networks of relations on the internet, and so forth. Drug design Drug design, also sometimes referred to as rational drug design, is the inventive process of finding new medications based on the knowledge of the biological target. The drug is most commonly an organic small molecule which activates or inhibits the function of a biomolecule such as a protein which in turn results in a therapeutic benefit to the patient. In the most basic sense, drug design involves design of small molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to the biomolecular target to which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design frequently but not necessarily relies on computer modeling techniques. This type of modeling is often referred to as computer-aided drug design. The phrase drug design is to some extent a misnomer. What is really meant by drug design is ligand design. Modeling techniques for prediction of binding affinity are reasonably successful. Scientific visualization Scientific visualization (also spelled scientific visualisation) is an interdisciplinary branch of science according to Friendly (2008) primarily concerned with the visualization of three dimensional phenomena (architectural, meteorological, medical, biological, etc. , where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps with a dynamic (time) component. Video game A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster display device. However, with the popular use of the term video game, it now implies any type of display device. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms; examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use. The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across platforms. Virtual reality Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-simulated environment, whether that environment is a simulation of the real world or an imaginary world. Most current virtual reality environments are primarily visual experiences, displayed either on a computer screen or through special or stereoscopic displays, but some simulations include additional sensory information, such as sound through speakers or headphones. Some advanced, haptic systems now include tactile information, generally known as force feedback, in medical and gaming applications. Users can interact with a virtual environment or a virtual artifact (VA) either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse, or through multimodal devices such as a wired glove, the Polhemus boom arm, and omnidirectional treadmill. Web design Web design is the skill of creating presentations of content (usually hypertext or hypermedia) that is delivered to an end-user through the World Wide Web, by way of a Web browser or other Web-enabled software like Internet television clients, microblogging clients and RSS readers. The intent of web design is to create a web site—a collection of electronic files that reside on a web server/servers and present content and interactive features/interfaces to the end user in form of Web pages once requested. Such elements as text, bit-mapped images (GIFs, JPEGs) and forms can be placed on the page using HTML/XHTML/XML tags. Markup languages (such as HTML, XHTML and XML) †¢ Style sheet languages (such as CSS and XSL) †¢ Client-side scripting (such as JavaScript) †¢ Server-side scripting (such as PHP and ASP) †¢ Database technologies (such as MySQL and PostgreSQL) †¢ Multimedia technologies (such as Flash and Silverlight) References 1. ^ What is Computer Graphics? , Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics. Last updated 04/15/98. Accessed Nov 17, 2009. 2. ^ University of Leeds ISS (2002). What are computer graphics? . Last updated: 22 Sep 2008 3. ^ Michael Friendly (2008). Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization. 4. ^ Ira Greenberg (2007). Processing: Creative Coding and Computational Art. Apress. ISBN  159059617X. http://books. google. com/books? id=WTl_7H5HUZACpg=PA115dq=raster+vector+graphics+photographiclr=as_brr=0ei=llOVR5LKCJL0iwGZ8-ywBwsig=YEjfPOYSUDIf1CUbL5S5Jbzs7M8.

Hypertext free essay sample

A comparison and review of hypertext literature. This paper compares various works of hypertext literature: Radiant Textuality by Jerome McGann, The Gutenberg by Steven Birkerts, From Text to Hypertext By Silvio Gaggi, Hypertext by George P. Landow, Hypertext by Geoffrey Nunberg, Tolstoy Dictaphone by Steven Birkerts. It describes the viewers input when reading hypertext fiction and literature on the Internet, where a lot of their thoughts, views and opinions become involved in the story. The paper is critical of hypertext fiction and literature on the Web and describes its dreadful inscriptions, boring text and the unattractive style of writings and impassive categorization not to mention its obvious grammatical errors and mismanagement of HTML technology.. Table of Contents Radiant Textuality by Jerome McGann The Gutenberg by Steven Birkerts From Text to Hypertext By Silvio Gaggi Hyper text by George P. Landow Hypertext by Geoffrey Nunberg Tolstoy Dictaphone By Steven Birkerts Affects of Hypertext on Fiction And Literature The writer, Jerome McGann in his book Radiant Textuality has attempted to illustrate that Digital media has the capability to do much more than categorize and classify the approach to the great and brilliant works and efforts of literals and artists. We will write a custom essay sample on Hypertext or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The writer asserts that the digital media has the capability to be a grave, fundamental and significant instrument of unparalleled supremacy, and this power is much further than its presently recognized perspective and documentation skill.

Free Essays on Public Relations History

According to our text, â€Å"Public Relations: The Profession and the Practice†(1997) , Public Relations is defined as â€Å"the leadership and management functions that help achieve organizational objectives, define philosophy, and facilitate organizational change†¦Public relations practitioners develop, execute, and evaluate organizational programs that promote the exchange of influence and understanding among the organization’s constituent parts and publics.† (p.5). Even though this is a current definition of the Profession, there have been many individuals that have practiced this profession since the early 1900’s. Edward L. Bernays is considered by many to be the â€Å"father of public relations†. The nephew of Sigmund Freud, Bernays began his career in public relations in 1915; he was assigned the task of promoting the Ballet Russes American tour. Even though he was not interested in the project, Bernays used his insight and skills to promote the â€Å"Ballet Russes† to the American public. He succeeded in changing the impression that the public had of this art form by explaining the concept and making it easier for audiences to understand and enjoy the ballet. He used local and international magazines and newspapers to promote the ballet and then used commercial retailers to create products that consumers would relate to the events. He succeeded in making the ballet one of the most sought after events of that time period. (prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1915.html) In addition to this project, Bernays was also credited with molding the images of many different individuals, businesses and government programs. During his long career, Bernays was involved in several different projects including the NAACP Conference in Atlanta in 1920 to promote civil rights for the African-American population, the Torches of Freedom Campaign in 1929 to promote the right of women to smoke in public (prmuseum.com/bernays/b... Free Essays on Public Relations History Free Essays on Public Relations History According to our text, â€Å"Public Relations: The Profession and the Practice†(1997) , Public Relations is defined as â€Å"the leadership and management functions that help achieve organizational objectives, define philosophy, and facilitate organizational change†¦Public relations practitioners develop, execute, and evaluate organizational programs that promote the exchange of influence and understanding among the organization’s constituent parts and publics.† (p.5). Even though this is a current definition of the Profession, there have been many individuals that have practiced this profession since the early 1900’s. Edward L. Bernays is considered by many to be the â€Å"father of public relations†. The nephew of Sigmund Freud, Bernays began his career in public relations in 1915; he was assigned the task of promoting the Ballet Russes American tour. Even though he was not interested in the project, Bernays used his insight and skills to promote the â€Å"Ballet Russes† to the American public. He succeeded in changing the impression that the public had of this art form by explaining the concept and making it easier for audiences to understand and enjoy the ballet. He used local and international magazines and newspapers to promote the ballet and then used commercial retailers to create products that consumers would relate to the events. He succeeded in making the ballet one of the most sought after events of that time period. (prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1915.html) In addition to this project, Bernays was also credited with molding the images of many different individuals, businesses and government programs. During his long career, Bernays was involved in several different projects including the NAACP Conference in Atlanta in 1920 to promote civil rights for the African-American population, the Torches of Freedom Campaign in 1929 to promote the right of women to smoke in public (prmuseum.com/bernays/b...

Marketing Strategies of Sky Broadcasting PLC Case Study

Marketing Strategies of Sky Broadcasting PLC - Case Study Example Rupert Murdoch was the founder of Sky Television plc. In the beginning the company was four-channel satellite television service. Sky Television merged with collapsed rival British Satellite Broadcasting in 1990 to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB) (Wikipedia, 2008) British Sky Broadcasting "Sky" has a customer base of approximately 21 million viewers in 8.1 million households. The company is one of the leading multi-channel television platforms in the UK and Ireland. The broadcasting service provide its subscribers with an array of movies, news, entertainment and sports channels and interactive services on Sky Digital, the UK and Ireland's first and most popular digital television platform. Being a volatile organization, the sky broadcasting earns its 80% income from its digital TV subscribers. Although the organization is the major player of UK media industry but the company strongly adheres with the policy of customer retention which most of organizations don't follow. In order to keep its customer constantly satisfied the organization has a large scale customer call center which not only undertake the marketing activities for the company but also increase the satisfaction level of the old customers by providing them instant information regarding their queries. The company employs approximately 6,000 people in various internal and outsourced customer contact centers, which play a major role in Sky's operations, because the contact center staff has front-line responsibility for maintaining the vital relationship between Sky and its digital TV customer base. Nowadays, marketing communication and advertising is becoming exceedingly important in everyday life. The use of the Internet has augmented the importance of advertising as advertisements about a specific brand or product reach people easier. Moreover, Jones (1995) states that "advertising is capable of a sharp immediate effect on sales" which plays a main role in enhancing the brand name.Furthermore many advertisements have deeper meanings than when seen at first sight especially in magazines where the main goal of the advertisement is to convey a message to the readers through the use of text or symbols. Central to much of modern day advertising in glossy magazines is the use of the metaphor (Proctor et. al, 2005). Metaphors are often used to broaden the way of understanding things. They also lead to a high level of ambiguity in the metaphoric form.Advertisers are finding it more and more difficult to persuade consumers about a specific product. But the Sky broadcasting is dealing with the challenges by undertaking following creative opportunities: 1. With the involvement of superior level of animation, 3D and visual effects the company caters the needs of customers in the field of Branding, Sponsorship, Promotions & Script writing, Directing and Program packaging. 2. On-line: Sky broadcasting deals with all aspects of Interactive & new media advertising & design including web, EPG, interactive

Plato vs Aristole Political Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plato vs Aristole Political Philosophy - Essay Example Philosophers were prominent people to those societies since they were influential to the people. Plato and his student Aristotle are well known for their efforts and contribution to the society on matters concerning governance and leadership. This paper will therefore, analyze the views of Aristotle and Plato towards governance. The essay will focus on their views towards self-interest and property. Philosophers around the world consider Plato as the greatest philosopher of western civilization. Although western civilization was characterized by a by democracy and capitalism, Plato considered communism government and lifestyle as the most appropriate. According to Plato, democracy and capitalism were just experimental ideologies that were not practical (Benardete 134). Plato considered communism as the most applicable lifestyle in people’s lives. According to his utopian society, the success of a government can only be defined by the success of its people. Plato also considers that a society is best governed by its best minds. A society can only be ruled by its best mind when there is limited competition or self-interest within the society. In such society, people would be working towards the realization of a common goal. This is the basis of communism according to Plato. The best minds of a society are the kings or philosophers within that society. Plato considers a socialist society as a society that is governed by wisdom and proved knowledge. A society that is different from Plato’s society is governed on un-established knowledge. The philosopher considers a socialist society to be better than a capitalist society. A communist society as described by Plato is a selfless society such society people work towards the realization of common goals. According to Plato, a utopian society can only be realized if people adapt knowledge. Plato acknowledges that people in an ideal society have no desire for power and common interests and goals drive them. People need knowledge to tame their desire for power and self-interest. According to Plato, people with self-interests are uneducated and therefore, quality education will eliminate people desire for power. Educating people will make them change their attitude towards the community and the country and, this will eliminate their desire for power. Application of knowledge is power; an educated person will be able to visualize the relationship between power and knowledge. According to Plato, relevant education will make the people understand the relationship between power and knowledge. This will make people compete for power based on their knowledge. People with less knowledge therefore consider themselves less appropriate to take leadership positions The love for the public is the second strategy that Plato proposes to use in order to tame people’s desire for power. Plato proposes that creating the love towards the nation among people makes them have an obligation towards the nation. This is followed by a separation of self-interests from national issues. People who have love for the nation assume responsibility over the nation and, this eliminates their desires for power. People who are hungry for power cannot establish an ideal nation that Plato proposes. People can only live satisfactory lives if they establish a gap between their self-interests and national interests (Allen 76). Plato is confident that acquisition of knowledge can tame desires for power and sel

Overview Of The Mona Lisa Art Essay

Overview Of The Mona Lisa Art Essay Mona Lisa is a 16th century painting made from oil and popular wood. Due to the paintings mystique and technical mystery, it is one of the worlds most famous paintings. Mona Lisa also known as La Joconde or La Giocondo was made by a Renaissance Man, an Italian artist known as Leonardo da Vinci (Sassoon, 2002).The painting was later bought by the France King at that time King Francois. Mona Lisa presently hangs in the museum in Musee de Louvre, Paris and is currently a French Government property. Many theories have been brought up regarding the woman sitting on the painting and the painting itself. The painting has been reproduced and can be found at almost every museum. Leonardo da Vinci started painting Mona Lisa in 1503.According to Vasari Leonardo fist took four years to make the painting after which he set it aside. He thereafter moved to France to paint at Clos Luc à © upon King Francoise request. Where he resumed working on the Mona Lisa. It took Leonardo three more years to complete the painting. The painting is said to have been commissioned by Francesco Del Giocondo, a wealthy silk merchant and his wife Lisa. In spite of the continuous debate, many people believe that the woman in the painting is Lisa del Giocondo. The couple requested the painting at the birth of their second child since they wanted it for their home (Van Dyke, 2008). A contrasting theory suggests Da Vinci did not paint a picture of a woman but his own portrait in feminine clothing. Mona Lisa painting shows a woman whose facial expression is enigmatic. The half-length portrait shows a woman who is gazing at the viewer with a smile. The smile has raised a lot of questions with many people arguing that the smile has a hidden mystery. Most people who had seen the portrait say that her eyes follow someone across the room if you gaze at her. The painting has been an object of continual fascination due to ambiguous expression of the woman, the half-figure composition monumentality, the atmospheric illusionism and the subtle modeling forms (Sassoon, 2002). Da Vinci used a rare design of a pyramid to place Mona Lisa calmly and simply in the paintings space. On the front corner of the pyramid, he placed the form of her folded hands. Lighting was well used as her neck, breast and face glow with similar light as the one that models her hands. Da Vinci used the formula used for the image of seated Madonna that was popular at that time to create the seated female figure. He used a modification of this formula whereby he created a distance between the observer and the seated woman through visual impression. Mona Lisa and the viewer are divided using the armrest of the chair. Mona Lisa shows a reserved posture as she sits markedly upright her arms folded across the chest. She welcomes a silent communication to the observer through her gaze which is constantly fixed to the viewer. The viewer is greatly attracted to Mona Lisas face by the brightly lit face that is framed practically by darker elements of the veil, hair and the shadows. Da Vinci created Mona Lisa in such a way that her composition will evoke an ambiguous effect to the observer. The painting shows a divine creature with a lot of mystery (Farago, 1999). The observer is attracted to her but her divinity and mystery creates a distance. The painting depicts no kind of dialogue between the woman and the observer. Da Vinci through the Mona Lisa painting became the first painter to use aerial perspective to depict a sitter before an imaginary landscape in a portrait. The enigmatic and mysterious woman is seated on an open loggia as the picture portrays each side of the picture containing dark pillar bases. There is a vast landscape that seems to be receding to the icy mountains behind her. Human presence in this environment is portrayed by a distant bridge and winding paths. The womans clothing and hair create a series of sensuous curves through sfumato that echo in to the rivers and the undulating imaginary varies behind her. Da Vinci is a creative painter as his calmness and style is characterized in the paintings graceful figure, outlines, light and dark dramatic contrast and the overall feeling portrayed by Monalisa. Since Mona Lisas painting does not represent a real woman but an ideal woman, many people argue that it should be considered a traditional portrait (Barolsky, 1987).Mona Lisa p ainting depicts harmony in painting as it connects and links nature with humanity through the faint smile. The Mona Lisa face has no visible hair neither eyelashes nor eyebrows. Research shows that during her time, facial hair was considered unsightly and most genteel women used to pluck them out. According to modern viewers the semi-abstract quality of the face is slightly added by the missing eyebrows. One of the controversies of Mona Lisas painting is the Originality of the pictures content. A large number of art historians believe that King Francois trimmed the original picture after the death of da Vinci. Some scholars dispute the theory and insist that on either side of the Mona Lisa there were columns. The female figure is said to have a duplicate copy at Dulwich picture Gallery after its trimming (Van Dyke, 2008). The painting was moved to Louvre after the French revolution. The mystique feminine figure was not very popular until mid 19th century due to Symbolist movement. The Mona Lisa painting was stolen in 1911 from the Musee de Louvre under the hands of the French government. Eduardo de Valfierno an employee at the Louvre was said to be the mastermind behind the crime. Eduardo was aiming to create several copies of Mona Lisa and then attempt to sell them as the original paintings later. He stole the painting after the museum was closed and hid it under his jacket while walking outside through the front door. He was later arrested while trying to sell the original Mona Lisa in Florence in 1913 when a genuine art director discovered. Although Mona Lisas main home was at Musee de Louvre; it has several other homes during its lifetime. Until the French Revolution it used to hang on the French royal palaces wall. While it was on Louvre it was removed twice, once when Napoleon requested the painting to be placed on his bedrooms walls because he liked it. The second time was during World War II when it was transported to secret hiding place among other Fr ench Government priceless works for safe keeping. It was also stolen once in 1911 making it the third time. In conclusion, Mona Lisa was one of Da Vincis numerous works which is a masterpiece to marvel at to date. Mona Lisa which hangs on the walls of Musee de Louvre currently depicts a feminine mystique of a mysterious woman. Although controversies have risen over the identity of the woman on the painting and the significance of the painting, many art historians and scholars have appreciated Mona Lisas enormous success. People from all over the world often gaze and wonder at the mysterious and smiling painting of Mona Lisa. Mona Lisa also means Lisa, of bare eyebrow. The picture of Mona Lisa has also been used to grace many magazines, objects such as cups and souvenirs among others.

Life Is a Dance Essay

â€Å"Life’s a dance you learn as you go Sometimes you lead, sometimes you follow Don’t worry about what you don’t know Life’s a dance you learn as you go.† These few lines were picked from one of the greatest hits of John Michael Montgomery. These best explains why some of us consider life a dance. Every dance has a unique identity. Each of them has its own history, series of steps and music. Therefore, life is like a dance. Really. We let ourselves learn and experience slowly but surely. Every step is complex to the extent that the whole routine might be ruined when you did it thoughtless or unprepared. Discipline and patience are two major factors needed to dance with grace and style. Also, dancing imparts to us the need to take into consideration the history of the dance you’re interested to for us to be able to grow from time to time from our mistakes or committed errors. Dancing also need the performer to be self-confident and independent – being brave enough to gain his dream, his passion and his aim to fame. Life is also an art, like a dance. You have to be creative to produce magnificent performances and flexible enough to adapt from the ups and downs of rehearsals and few blunders around. A true performer dance not to compare himself to anyone but to dance better than one self. As you learn more as time passes by, one must enjoy each step along the way for him to be exultant on what he loves to do. Dancing also teach us to interact more with people especially those who you might be with and also those who can aid us to dance better, grow more and be the best as we can be in the performing stage. Life is like a dance – always changing. Sometimes you find yourself alone or with a partner or within a group. Sometimes you’re the lead, sometimes you’re not. Sometimes steps are fast and tough or gentle and stress-free. But the result will depends not on the routines, but on how you dance the piece. Interpretive dance will be my piece if I have to choose. This particular dance defines my life as well. Movements are based on human expressions and feelings. I’m used to show what I feel towards the people who surround me. Also, I have high regard about freedom and personal expressions. Movements in this kind of dance are also communicating to the viewers. â€Å"Actions speak louder than words. â€Å" – This old little saying, I believe, is true. One can show the sincerity and truthfulness more when it is communicated with actions. Often the style includes grand, eloquent movements which, in my opinion, are the reason why it is associated with higher form of arts. Imagination is greater than knowledge. Creativity is of much more value here than the other types of dance. We can dance for laughter, for tears, for love, for pain, for fears or even for madness. Dancers create their own character by a dance full of passion and by dancing not just with a foot but most of all, with a heart even with music or without.

Advance Paper 2

Centre Number Student Number CATHOLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS ASSOCIATION OF NEW SOUTH WALES 2009 TRIAL HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION English (Advanced) Paper 2 – Modules Morning Session Tuesday, 11 August 2009 Total marks – 60 Pages 2-4 General Instructions †¢ Reading time – 5 minutes †¢ Working time – 2 hours †¢ †¢ Write using blue or black pen Write your Centre Number and Student Number at the top of this page Attempt ONE question from Questions 3-7 Allow about 40 minutes for this section Pages 10-11 †¢ Attempt EITHER Question 1 OR Question 2 Allow about 40 minutes for this section Section III 20 marks †¢ Attempt EITHER Question 8 OR Question 9 †¢ Allow about 40 minutes for this section Disclaimer Every effort has been made to prepare these ‘Trial' Higher School Certificate Examinations in accordance with the Board of Studies documents, Principles for Setting HSC Examinations in a Standards-Referenced Framework (BOS Bulletin, Vol 8, No 9, Nov/Dec 1999), and Principles for Developing Marking Guidelines Examinations in a Standards Referenced Framework (BOS Bulletin, Vol 9, No 3, May 2000).No guarantee or warranty is made or implied that the ‘Trial' Examination papers mirror in every respect the actual HSC Examination question paper in any or all courses to be examined. These papers do not constitute ‘advice' nor can they be construed as authoritative interpretations of Board of Studies intentions. The CSSA accepts no liability for any reliance use or purpose related to these ‘Trial' question papers. Advice on HSC examination issues is only to be obtained from the NSW Board of Studies. 5400-1Section I – Module A: Comparative Study of Texts and Context 20 marks Attempt either Question 1 or Question 2 Allow about 40 minutes for this section Answer the question in a SEPARATE writing booklet. In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: †¢ demonstrate unders tanding of the meanings of a pair of texts when considered together †¢ evaluate the relationships between texts and contexts †¢ organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form Question 1 – Elective 1: Exploring Connections (20 marks) To what extent are texts enriched through their connection with other texts?Respond to this question in relation to the pair of prescribed texts that you have studied. The prescribed texts are: †¢ Shakespearean Drama and Film – William Shakespeare, King Richard III AND – Al Pacino, Lookingfor Richard †¢ Prose Fiction and Poetry – Patrick White, The Aunt's Story AND – Rosemary Dobson, Selected Poems * Young Girl at a Window * Chance Met * Landscape in Italy * Azay-Le-Rideau * The Rape of Europa * Romantic * Primitive Painters Question 1 continues on page 3Question 1 (continued) †¢ Prose Fiction and Nonfiction * Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice AND * F ay Weldon, Letters to Alice on First Reading Jane Austen †¢ Poetry and Drama * * * * * * * * * * John Donne, Selected Poetry Death be not proud This is my playes last scene At the round earths imagin ‘d corners blow If poisonous minerals Hymne to God my God, in my sicknesse A Valediction: forbidding mourning The Apparition TheRelique The Sunne Rising AND * Margaret Edson, W;t End of Question 1In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: †¢ demonstrate understanding of the meanings of a pair of texts when considered together †¢ evaluate the relationships between texts and contexts †¢ organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form Question 2 – Elective 2: Texts in Time (20 marks) Compare the ways in which texts offer insights into the human experience. Respond to this statement in relation to the pair of prescribed texts that you have studied.The prescribed texts are: †¢ Prose Fiction and Film – Mary Shelley, Frankenstein AND – Ridley Scott, Blade Runner (Director's Cut) †¢ Prose Fiction and Poetry – F Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby AND – Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Aurora Leigh and Other Poems – Sonnets I, XIII, XIV, XXI, XXII, XXVIII, XXXII, XLIII †¢ Drama and Nonfiction – Edward Albee, Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf AND – Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's Own Section II – Module B: Critical Study of Texts 0 marks Attempt ONE question from Questions 3-7 Allow about 40 minutes for this section Answer the question in a SEPARATE writing booklet. In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: †¢ demonstrate an informed understanding of the ideas expressed in the text †¢ evaluate the text's language, content and construction †¢ organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form Question 3 – Shakespearean Drama (20 marks) How is your person al response to Hamlet shaped by the interaction of characters in the play? William Shakespeare, HamletQuestion 4 – Prose Fiction (20 marks) (a) How is your personal response to In the Skin of a Lion shaped by the interaction of characters in the novel? Michael Ondaatje, In the Skin of a Lion OR (b) How is your personal response to Cloudstreet shaped by the interaction of characters in the novel? — Tim Winton, Cloudstreet OR (c) How is your personal response to Sixty Lights shaped by the interaction of characters in the novel? Gail Jones, Sixty Lights OR (d) How is your personal response to Jane Eyre shaped by the interaction of characters in the novel?Charlotte Bronte, Jane Eyre Please turn over In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: †¢ demonstrate an informed understanding of the ideas expressed in the text †¢ evaluate the text's language, content and construction †¢ organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audienc e, purpose and form Question 5 – Drama or Film (20 marks) (a) How is your personal response to A Doll's House shaped by the interaction of characters in the play? Henrik Ibsen, A Doll's House OR b) How is your personal response to Citizen Kane shaped by the interaction of characters in the film? Orson Welles, Citizen Kane Question 6 – Poetry (20 marks) (a) How is your personal response to the poetry of Yeats shaped by a perception of voice in the poems? In your answer, refer to THREE of the poems set for study. The prescribed poems are: William Butler Yeats, WB Yeats: Poems selected by Seamus Heaney * An Irish Airman * When You Are Old * Among School Children * The Wild Swans at Coole * Leda and the Swan * The Second Coming * Easter 1916OR Question 6 continues on page 7 6 Question 6 (continued) (b) How is your personal response to the poetry of Harwood shaped by a perception of voice in the poems? In your answer, refer to THREE of the poems set for study. The prescribe d poems are: Gwen Harwood, Selected Poems * Father and Child (Parts I & II) * The Violets * At Mornington * A Valediction * Triste Triste * The Sharpness of Death * Mother Who Gave me Life OR (c) How is your personal response to the poetry of Slessor shaped by a perception of voice in the poems?In your answer, refer to THREE of the poems set for study. The prescribed poems are: Kenneth Slessor, Selected Poems * Out of Time * Five Bells * Sleep * Five Visions of Captain Cook * Sensuality * Elegy in a Botanical Garden * Beach Burial End of Question 6 In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: †¢ demonstrate an informed understanding of the ideas expressed in the text †¢ evaluate the text's language, content and construction †¢ organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and formQuestion 7 – Nonfiction (20 marks) (a) How is your personal response to Orwell's essays shaped by a perception of voice in these texts? In your answer, refer to THREE of the essays set for study. * George Orwell, George Orwell: Essays The prescribed essays are: * Why I Write * Notes on Nationalism * Good Bad Books * The Sporting Spirit * Politics and the English Language * Writers and Leviathan OR (b) How is your personal response to speeches shaped by a perception of the passion of the speaker?In your answer, refer to THREE of the speeches set for study * Speeches The prescribed speeches are: * Margaret Atwood – Spotty-Handed Villainesses, 1994 * Paul Keating – Funeral Service of the Unknown Australian Soldier, 1993 * Noel Pearson -An Australian History for Us All, 1996 * Aung San Suu Kyi – Keynote Address at the Beijing World Conference on Women, 1995 * Faith Bandler -Faith, Hope and Reconciliation, 1999 * Deane, William – It is Still Winter at Home, 1999 * Anwar Sadat – Speech to the Israeli Knesset, 1977 BLANK PAGE Please turn overSection III – Module C: Representation and Text 20 marks Attempt ONE question from Questions 8-9 Allow about 40 minutes for this section Answer the question in a SEPARATE writing booklet. In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: †¢ demonstrate understanding of and evaluate the relationship between representation and meaning †¢ organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form Question 8 – Elective 1: Conflicting Perspectives (20 marks) You are speaking to an audience of your peers.Compose a speech in which you demonstrate how your understanding of conflicting perspectives is shaped by the construction of the texts. In your response, refer to your prescribed text and TWO texts of your own choosing. The prescribed texts are: †¢ †¢ †¢ Shakespearean Drama Prose Fiction Drama or Film – William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar – David Guterson, Snow Falling on Cedars – Peter Whelan, The Herbal Bed OR — Barry Levinson, Wag the Dog †¢ Poetry – Ted Hughes, Birthday Letters * Fulbright Scholars * The Shot * The Minotaur * Sam * Your Paris * Red —Geoffrey Robertson, The Justice Game * The Trials ofOz * Michael X on Death Row * ‘The Romans in Britain' * The Prisoner of Venda Nonfiction * Show Trials * Diana in the Dock: Does Privacy Matter? * Afterword: The Justice Game 10 Question 9 – Elective 2: History and Memory (20 marks) You are speaking to an audience of your peers. Compose a speech in which you demonstrate how your understanding of the interplay between history and memory is shaped by the construction of the texts. In your response, refer to your prescribed text and TWO texts of your own choosing.The prescribed texts are: †¢ Prose Fiction – Maxine Hong Kingston, The Woman Warrior: Memoirs, of a Girlhood Among Ghosts OR – Peter Carey, The True History of the Kelly Gang †¢ †¢ Film Poetry – Stephen Frears, The Queen – Denise Le vertov, Selected Poems * Ways of Conquest * Don't You Hear That Whistle Blowin'†¦ * In Thai Binh (Peace) Province * A Time Past * Libation * A Letter to Marek About a Photograph * The Pilots †¢ Nonfiction or Multimedia – Mark Raphael Baker, The Fiftieth Gate OR Smithsonian National Museum of American History September 11 website End of paper 11 EXAMINERS Pamela Nutt (Convenor) Catherine Anderson Tanya Appleby Nicole Archard Darren Barker Lorna Ciesiolka Marian Henry Katherina Lathouras Alistair Symons PLC Sydney, Croydon St Patrick's College, Strathfield Tara Anglican School for Girls, Nth Parramatta Kincoppal-Rose Bay, School of the Sacred Heart OLMC, Parramatta Educational Consultant Marist College, Pagewood Knox Grammar School, Wahroonga Mount St Joseph, Milperra 12

Hydraulic Conductivity Soil

Sample details Pages: 31 Words: 9369 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Hydraulic Conductivity Soil Chapter 1 Introduction Hydraulic conductivity or permeability of a soil is one important soil properties used in geotechnical engineering. It can be seen from the difficulty in measuring accurate and reliable values of hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity of soil is basically the capacity of water to let water to pass through the pores or voids in the soil. There are many methods developed in order to measure the hydraulic conductivity of soil; both laboratory and in-situ field methods. Some of the common laboratory methods are the constant-head test and falling head test. On the other hand, the common in-situ field methods are pumping well test, borehole tests (e.g. slug test, variable head test), infiltrometer tests and using porous probes (BAT permeameter). All these in-situ field test methods were used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of subsoil for both saturated and unsaturated media. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Hydraulic Conductivity Soil | Engineering Dissertations" essay for you Create order One other in-situ field measurement method that has been introduced is the Two-Stage Borehole (TSB) test, also known as the Boutwell permeameter test. This testing method is commonly used to test a low hydraulic conductivity soil such as compacted clay liner used in landfill barrier system or covers used at waste disposal facilities, for canal and reservoir liners, for seepage blankets, and for amended soil liners. The advantage of using this method is that it can be used to measure both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values of soil, kv and kh respectively. One other advantages of using this method is that it can be used to measure the rate of infiltration of water or other fluid into a large mass of soil which can represent the tested site. However, the application of the TSB/Boutwell permeameter test for natural soil or other soils having a higher permeability value has been limited. This report will discuss the theory behind the TSB/Boutwell permeameter test and the application of this method on natural soil. The methodology of this test will also be included in this report. In addition to the standard TSB setup, this report will also discuss the modification made to the standard TSB test which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. The methodology and results from the modified setup will also be included. The results from both the standard and modified setup will then be compared. Objectives The objectives of this project is summarised into four stages. In the first stage, the objective is to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the soil using the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup. The second stage involves the modification of the standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter setup. The aim is to obtain a simple installation setup which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. In the third stage, the objective is to test the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test in the field. This is done by carrying out a series of tests in varied subsurface media at the assigned site location. The results from both the standard and modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test will be compared. The last stage of the project consists of particle size analysis of the soil obtained from site. The results from the two setups will again be compared to the hydraulic conductivity values obtained from the derivation of the Particle Size Distribution curves. The tasks that are done in this project include: The review of TSB/Boutwell Permeameter methodology Developing the modify TSB/Boutwell Permeameter Completion of field tests using the TSB/Boutwell Permeameter Collection of soil samples and subsequent particle size analysis Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Soil Water Soils are consists of separate solid particles. The pore spaces between the solid particles are all interconnected which mean that water is free to flow through these interconnected pore spaces (Whitlow, 2001). The water will flow from a higher pore pressure point to a lower pore pressure point. The pressure of the pore water is measure relatively to the atmospheric pressure. The level in which the pressure is zero (i.e. atmospheric) is defined as the water table (Craig, 2004). The soil above the water table is assumed to be unsaturated and the soil below the water table is assumed to be fully saturated. The level of water table changes in relation with climate conditions and can also be affected by any constructional operations (Craig, 2004). It is usual to express a pressure as a pressure head or head which is measured in metres of water when considering water flow problems. According to Bernoullis equation, the total head at a point in flowing water can be given by the sum of three head components; pressure head (u/ÃŽÂ ³w), velocity head (v2/2g) and elevation head (Z). This relationship is illustrated in the equation below: (Equation 1) where; h = total head u = pressure v = velocity g = acceleration due to gravity ÃŽÂ ³w = unit weight of water Z = elevation head However, since the seepage velocities in the soil are so small due to the high resistance to flow offered by the granular structure of the soil, the velocity head is often omitted from the equation (Whitlow, 2001). The total head at any point is then can be adequately represented by: (Equation 2) In saturated conditions, the one-dimensional water flow in soil is governed by the Darcys Law, which states that the velocity of the groundwater flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient: (Equation 3) where; v = velocity of groundwater flow = flow/area (q/A) k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity (constant) i = hydraulic gradient = head/length (h/L) The empirical validity of Darcys Law depends heavily on the hydraulic conductivity, k, which must be carefully determined so that it can represent the soil mass (Azizi, 2000). The different practical methods that can be used to measure the hydraulic conductivity will be discussed in Section 2.3. It is important to study the flow of water through porous media in soil mechanics. This is necessary for the estimation of underground seepage under various conditions, for investigation of problems involving the pumping of water for underground constructions, and for making stability analyses of retaining structures that are subjected to seepage forces (Das, 2006). Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability) Hydraulic conductivity, k, of a soil is the capacity of the soil to allow water to pass through it. The value of hydraulic conductivity is often used to measure the resistance of a soil to water flow. Hydraulic conductivity has units of length divided by time. The most common unit used of measurement is meter per second (m/s). Although hydraulic conductivity has the same unit as those to describe velocity, it is not a measure of velocity (Coduto, 1999). Importance of Hydraulic Conductivity Hydraulic conductivity is a very important parameter in geotechnical engineering or in determining the widespread of contamination. This can be seen in the difficulties in measuring it. This is because hydraulic conductivity can varies from one point in a soil to another, even with small changes in the soil characteristics. It is also, as mentioned in the previous section, influenced by the viscosity and unit weight of the fluid flowing through the soil. Hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to the direction of flow which means that the vertical hydraulic conductivity would not be the same as the horizontal hydraulic conductivity. This condition of the soil is said to be anisotropic. Studies that have been made indicate that the value of vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv) of a soil is usually higher than the horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh) in one or two order of magnitude (Chen, 2000). Some applications in which information on hydraulic conductivity is very important are in modelling the groundwater flow and transportation of contaminants in the soil. Hydraulic conductivity data of a soil is also important for designing drainage of an area and in the construction of earth dam and levee. In addition, it is very important in tackling most of the geotechnical problems such as seepage losses, settlement calculations, and stability analyses (Odong, 2007). Factors Affecting Hydraulic Conductivity The hydraulic conductivity of a soil depends on many factors. The main factor that affecting the value of hydraulic conductivity is the average size of the pores between particles in the soil, which in turn is related to the distribution of particle sizes, particle shape and roughness, pore continuity, and soil structure (Craig,2004). In general; the bigger the average size of the pores, the higher the value of hydraulic conductivity is. The value of hydraulic conductivity of a soil that has a presence of small percentages of fines will be significantly lower than the same soil without fines. In the other hand, the presence of fissures in clay will result in a much higher value of hydraulic conductivity compared to that of unfissured clay (Craig, 2004). The range of the hydraulic conductivity value is very large. Table 1 below illustrates the range of hydraulic conductivity which differs from one soil type to another which is mainly due to the different average size of the pores between the soil particles. Table 1 Range of hydraulic conductivity values (m/s) with different soil type (Whitlow, 2001) 102 101 1 10-1 Clean gravels Very good drainage 10-2 10-3 10-4 Clean sands Gravel-sand mixtures 10-5 10-6 Very fine sands Silts and silty sands Fissured and weathered clays Good drainage Poor drainage 10-7 10-8 10-9 Clay silts (20% clay) Unfissured clays Practically impervious The hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to viscosity and density of water in which both are affected by temperature. It is therefore conclude that the value of hydraulic conductivity will then be affected by changes in temperature. Theoretically, it can be shown that for laminar flow and saturated soil condition the relationship between temperature and hydraulic conductivity: (Equation 4) Where; ÃŽÂ ³w= unit weight of water ÃŽÂ · = viscosity of water K = absolute coefficient (units m2). This value is dependent on the characteristic of the soil skeleton. Since most of the laboratory graduations were standardised at 20C, the value of hydraulic conductivity at this temperature is taken as 100% (Craig, 2004). Other value of hydraulic conductivity at 10C and 0C are 77% and 56% respectively (Craig, 2004). Hydraulic Conductivity Tests Most of the tests for measuring hydraulic conductivity measured one average value of hydraulic conductivity. However, some tests measured both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values to obtained more accurate estimation. There are numbers of experiments and test that can be done to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. These tests to measure the hydraulic conductivity can be done both in the laboratory and in the field. The following sections will briefly discussed the most common laboratory and in-situ tests practiced today to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. Although with all the various tests developed to measured the hydraulic conductivity, there are uncertainties arise on how the soils that being tested represent the whole soil condition at the site of interest. It is therefore a good practice to perform different tests and comparing the results obtained. Laboratory Permeability Tests One problem with laboratory tests is that the samples collected do not adequately represent the detailed conditions of the soil, e.g. fissures, joints or other characteristics in the site of interest. Even with carefully conducted tests and good sampling techniques, it is impossible to obtain a very accurate result. The results typically have a precision of about 50% or more (Coduto, 1999). It is therefore important to take this into consideration if any construction activities or contamination remediation operations to be perform at the site of interest. Constant Head Permeability Test The constant head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of more permeable soils such as gravels and sands which have a hydraulic conductivity value of 10-4 m/s (Whitlow, 2001). The equipments used for this test is called a constant head permeameter. A schematic illustration of this equipment is shown in Figure 2.1. The constant head permeameter was developed base on the basic idea of Darcys Law (Equation 3). The soil sample is contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional area A. Continuous water supply is let to flow from a tank to the sample to maintain a constant head. The water that flow through the sample is collected in a collection jar or container and the discharge through the sample is measured by calculating the volume of the water in the collection container over a period of time t. h Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of Constant Head Permeameter (www.geology.sdsu.edu) The hydraulic conductivity, k of the tested soil is then calculated by: From equation 3: (Equation 5) Where; Q = the discharge through the sample (m3/s) L = the length of the sample (m) A = cross-section of the sample (m2) h = hydraulic head (m) The above diagram shows a simple setup of the constant-head permeameter. Other setup is also available which make use a pair of standpipes to measure the pore pressure and potential at two points. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below. Although both the setups are different, it makes used of the same concepts; Darcys Law. Figure 2.2 Alternative setup of Constant Head Permeameter (Whitlow, 2001) Falling Head Permeability Test The falling head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of less permeable soils such as fine sands, silt and clay. The water flow resistance in these types of soil are very high which unable to measure accurate measurements of hydraulic conductivity if used with constant head permeameter. Undisturbed samples are required to perform laboratory test to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. However, a small degree of disturbance of the sample is accepted as it is very hard to obtain a perfect undisturbed sample. An undisturbed sample can be obtained usually using a U100 sample tube or a core-cutter tube (Whitlow, 2001).The schematic illustration of the falling head test setup is shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3 Laboratory setup of falling head test (Whitlow, 2001) The sample is place in a cylinder container with a wire mesh and gravel filter at both end of the cylinder. The base of the cylinder is left to stand in a water reservoir fitted with a constant level overflow. At the other end, which is the top of the cylinder, it is connected to a glass standpipe of known diameter (Whitlow, 2001). These standpipes are then filled with de-aired water and it is allow to flow through the soil sample. The height of the water in the standpipe is measured at several time intervals. The test is then repeated using standpipes of different diameters. It is a good practice to take note of the initial and final unit weight and water content of the sample to get additional information about the properties of the sample (Whitlow, 2001). The hydraulic conductivity of the sample is then calculated from the results obtained from the tests. The Darcys Law concept is still used in determining the hydraulic conductivity. The derivation of the hydraulic conductivity for the falling head test is done as follow (Whitlow, 2001). Deriving from Equation 3: With reference to Figure 2.3, if the level of the water in the standpipe fall dh in a time of dt the flow, q will be and the hydraulic gradient, i Therefore; (Equation 6) Where; a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe A = cross-sectional area of the sample When equation 6 is rearranged and integrated, the final equation to calculate the hydraulic conductivity is given as (Equation 7) Particle Size Analysis Particle size analysis is commonly used to classify the physical properties of the soil being tested. This testing method is used for both soil science and engineering purposes (Keller and Gee, 2006). In context of engineering purposes, it is commonly used to define the particle size distributions of the soil. The data obtained from the particle size distributions can then be used to estimate the pore-size classes needed in calculating the hydraulic properties of the soil such as hydraulic conductivity (Keller and Gee, 2006). There are various methods of measuring particle size analysis. Traditional methods include sieving, hydrometer and pipette. Other new techniques are also been developed; one example is laser-diffraction techniques (Eshel et al, 2004). However, particle size analysis is dependent on the technique used for defining the particle size distribution. It is therefore a common practice to do more than one method to define the particle size distribution (Keller and Gee, 2006). The results from all the different methods can then be compared to obtain more representative result. For the traditional particle size analysis methods, two separate procedures are used in order to obtain wider range of particles sizes (Head, 1980). The two procedures are sieving and sedimentation procedures (hydrometer or pipette method). Sieving is used to categorise large particle such as gravel and coarse sand. The particles can be separated into different size ranges using a series of standard sieves. For the finer particles such as silt and clay, sedimentation procedure is used (Head, 1980). Once the particle size distribution is defined from the particle size analysis, the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil can then be estimated using a number of established empirical equations. However, the applicability of the above equations depends on the type of soil that is being tested. The following paragraphs summarised several empirical equations from previous studies (Odong, 2007). Hazens equation: (Equation 8) Kozeny-Carmans equation: (Equation 9) Breyers equation: (Equation 10) Slitchers equation: (Equation 11) Where; g = acceleration due to gravity v = kinematic viscosity n = porosity of the soil d10 = grain size in which 10% the sample is finer than The estimation of the hydraulic conductivity from these equations required information on the kinematic viscosity v and porosity n of the soil. The kinematic viscosity can be calculated by: (Equation 12) Where; = dynamic viscosity ÃŽÂ ¡ = density of water The porosity n can be calculated using the empirical relationship below: (Equation 13) Where U is the coefficient of grain uniformity and is given by: (Equation 14) The values of d60and d10 can be obtained from the particle size distribution. d60and d10 represent the grain size for which 60% and 10% of the sample respectively is finer than. In-situ Field Permeability Tests Due to the problems associated with reliability and laboratory tests, as mention in Section 2.3.1, field methods of measuring the hydraulic conductivity should be used to obtain more accurate and reliable measurements. In the field test, the soil disturbances is kept to a minimum level and they usually involves the testing of larger, more representative samples. Although, in term of cost and time, field measurement method is more expensive, it will as well provide more reliable measurement of hydraulic conductivity when dealing with a wide range of soil macro-structural characteristics. Other more economic option of field measurement can also be done. Such example is by performing borehole test, provided the pumping observation sequences are carefully planned and controlled (Whitlow, 2001). Well Pumping Tests This method is more suitable if used to measure hydraulic conductivity in homogenous coarse soil strata (Craig, 2004). The procedure involves the measurement of water that is being pumped out of a well at a constant rate, then observing the effect of these pumping activities to the drawdown of the groundwater level at other wells. The diameter of the well is normally at least 300mm and penetrates to the bottom of the stratum under test (Craig, 2004). The pumping rate and the groundwater levels in two or more monitoring wells are then recorded. The analysis of the results depends whether the aquifer is confined or unconfined. Well pumping test in a confined aquifer In confined aquifer the permeable stratum is squeezed in between two impermeable layers. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4 below. To perform the test, the pumping rate must not be too high to reduce the level in the pumping well below the top of the aquifer. The interface between the top aquifer and the overlying impermeable stratum therefore forms the top stream line (Whitlow, 2001). Figure 2.4 Pumping test in confined aquifer (Azizi, 2000) Figure 2.4 illustrates the arrangement of the pumping well and two other monitoring wells. Two assumptions were made at this point; the piezometric surface is above the upper surface of the aquifer and the hydraulic gradient is constant at a given radius (Whitlow, 2001). In steady state condition, the hydraulic gradient through an elemental cylinder with radius r from the well centres estimated as follow: where; dr = thickness h = height The area in which the water flow, A: where; D = the thickness of the aquifer Substituting the area A into the Darcys Law (Equation 4) will give; Hence: And therefore the hydraulic conductivity is: (Equation 15) In the case that the piezometric level is above ground level, where the water level inside the well inserted into the confined aquifer rises above the ground level, this scenario is called Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000). This is illustrated in Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5 Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000) Well pumping test in unconfined aquifer An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface layer that allows water to flow through the surface. The permeable stratum is not overlain by an impermeable layer. The piezometric surface is therefore in the same level of the water table. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6 below. The surface layer permeability is very high, thus allowing the water table to fluctuate up and down easily. Figure 2.6 Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer (Whitlow, 2001) Under steady state pumping conditions, the hydraulic gradient i at a given radius is assumed to be constant in a homogenous media. Homogenous unit is where the properties at any location are the same. For instance, sandstone has grain size distribution, porosity and thickness variation within a very small limit (Fetter, 2001). With reference to the arrangement of pumping well and two monitoring wells in Figure 2.6 above, the hydraulic conductivity can be determine by: Deriving from Equation 3: where; Hydraulic gradient i is And area through which the water flow, Then, Thus, hydraulic conductivity for an unconfined aquifer (after integrating the above equation) is (Equation 16) Borehole Permeameter Tests There are many borehole tests developed to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The most common in-situ borehole tests are as follow: Slug test Two-stage borehole test/ Boutwell Permeameter Variable head test In-situ constant head test Slug test is one of the cheapest in-situ field methods to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The procedure of this test involves the rapid adding or removing a slug or water into a monitoring well. The slug can be of anything that can displace the volume of the water in the well, e.g. water, plastic tubing capped at both ends, and other material of known volume and can fit into the monitoring well. The rate of rise and fall of the groundwater level is then observed until it reaches an equilibrium state. In a variable head test, a slug is introduced into the monitoring well by either adding in a measured volume of water into the well or other materials mentioned earlier. The rate of water level fall is then measured in time. This is called falling head test. The water can also be removed out from the well by using a bailer or a pump. The rate of water level rise is then measured with time. This is called a rising head test. Depending on the properties of the aquifer and the soil, and the size of the slug used the water can either returns to its original water level before the test quickly or very slowly. For instance, if the porosity of the soil is high then the water level will returns very quickly to its original water level before the test is done. There is also the constant head test. In this test the water level or head is maintained throughout the test at a given level. This is done by adjusting and measuring the flow rate of the water at intervals from start to the end of the test (Whitlow, 2001). The constant head test is said to give more accurate results, provided the water pressure is controlled so that it would not cause fracturing or other disturbance to the soil (Whitlow, 2001). There are several assumptions made for this test: The soil is homogenous, isotropic, uniformly soaked Infinite boundaries Soil does not swell when wetted The expressions use to calculate the hydraulic conductivity for the above tests depend on whether the stratum is unconfined or unconfined, the position of the bottom of the casing within the stratum and details of the drainage face in the soil (Craig, 2004). The horizontal hydraulic conductivity is tend to be measured if the soil is anisotropic with respect to permeability and if the borehole extends below the bottom of the casing. On the other hand, the vertical hydraulic conductivity is often measured if the casing penetrates below soil level in the bottom of the borehole (Craig, 2004). The following expressions are all recommended in BS 5930 to calculate the hydraulic conductivity (Whitlow, 2001). For variable head test: (Equation 17) Or, (Equation 18) For constant head test: Hvorslevs time lag analysis (Equation 19) Gibsons root-time method (Equation 20) where; A = cross-sectional area of the standpipe or borehole casing F = and intake factor dependent on conditions at the bottom of the borehole. The value for F can be obtained from Figure 6 of BS 5930 (BS 5930, 1999). T = basic time lag. Figure 7 and 8 of BS 5930 (BS 5930, 1999). H1, H2 = variable heads measured at elapsed times of t1 and t2 respectively Hc = constant head q = rate of inflow = steady state of inflow, obtained from Figure 10 of BS 5930 (BS 5930, 1999). Two-Stage Borehole (TSB) test/ Boutwell Permeameter This project involves the use of this measurement technique. It is one of the borehole permeability tests and can be used in both saturated and unsaturated region. This method is first developed by Professor Gordon P. Boutwell as a relatively quick and simple way to calculate the effectiveness of compacted soil liner construction techniques (www.erosioncontrol.com). This test method may also be utilised for compacted fills or natural deposits, above or below the water table. TSB test or Boutwell permeameter is usually used to measured the hydraulic conductivity for a low permeability media such as natural clay liner used in landfill barrier system or other material with hydraulic conductivity value less than or equal to 110-5 m/s (ASTM, 1999). This test method involves two-stage falling head test using infiltrometer installed inside the ground. The infiltrometer is basically a standpipe used to measure the fall in the water level in the borehole as the water dissipated into the soil. In both stages of the TSB test, the rate of flow in which water flow into the soil through a sealed, cased borehole is measured usually using a standpipe in a falling-head test procedure. In stage 1 of the TSB test, the bottom of the casing is in the same level with the bottom of the borehole. The casing will prevent the water to dissipate horizontally. This will ensure the maximum effect of the vertical hydraulic conductivity KV. In stage 2 of the TSB test, the borehole is extended below the bottom of the casing. This will make the water to dissipate both vertically and horizontally. Both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values, KV and KH respectively, can be calculated. The setup for TSB is illustrated in Figure 2.7 below. The value obtained from this test is only the limiting hydraulic conductivity values K1 and K2. The actual value of KV and KH are then calculated from these limiting values. (a) (b) Figure 2.7 Setup for two-stage borehole test (a) Stage 1 (b) Stage 2 This method covers field measurement of limiting values for both vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities of porous materials the two-stage cased borehole technique. These limiting hydraulic conductivity values are the maximum possible value for the vertical direction and the minimum possible value for the horizontal direction (ASTM, 1999). The methodology of this method will be further discussed in the following chapter. Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 Introduction This chapter will discuss the methodology and equipments used to perform both the standard and modified setup of the TSB /Boutwell Permeameter test. This chapter will also discuss the methodology of the laboratory test for the particle size analysis. The site background on which the tests are done will also be included in this chapter. The results from both the standard and modified TSB/Boutwell tests will then be compared to that of the results obtained from the soil particle size analysis. 3.2 Site background and condition The tests were performed at the Quad of the David Kier Building, Queens University Belfast. The site can be access from the Stranmillis Road or the Malone Road. Figure 3.1 below shows the satellite image of the site. Figure 3.1 Satellite image of the site (Google Map) With reference to Figure 3.1, the site is found to be sloping downward. The site is surrounded by the David Kier building. There are three big trees grew within the quad. There is a big excavation done in the site during its construction in 1962. The soil at the site might consist of man-made fill. However, the soil below 1 or 2 metre might represent the natural soil of the site. 3.3 Field test of the standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test 3.3.1 Theory As mention earlier in the literature review, the TSB test or Boutwell Permeameter was used to measure the limiting values of the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity. For the case of the vertical direction, the maximum possible value is taken. On the other hand, the minimum possible value is taken for the horizontal direction. Both the two stages in the TSB test involve the measurement of the flow rate of water flow into the soil through a sealed, cased borehole. Grout was usually used for sealing the borehole and the casing used is commonly a plastic PVC pipe. In Stage 1 the casing extended to the bottom of the borehole to prevent the water dissipates into the soil horizontally. Water will only flow into the soil through the bottom of the borehole. This will enable for the measurement of the maximum effect of the vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv). In Stage 2 of the TSB test, the length of the borehole is extended. The length of the extended borehole depends on the diameter (D) of the casing (see Figure 2.7b). Standard values that were usually used are 1.0D, 1.5D and 2.0D (Daniel, 1989). Water will now be able to flow into the soil through the side wall and bottom of the borehole. This will enable the measurement of the maximum effects of both Kv and Kh hydraulic conductivity. The standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test method that was done in this project will be slightly different from the standard test method in the ATM International: Designation D6391-99. More of this will be discuss in sub-section 3.4.3. However, note must be taken that the direct results obtained from the field test are not the actual value of Kv and Kh. It is only the measurement of the limiting values of K1 and K2. The actual values of Kv and Kh are then calculated from these limiting values. 3.3.2 Equipments This section will list down the equipments used during the whole TSB test. Below are all the equipments. Hand auger used to drill the borehole. Reamer used to ream the bottom of the borehole to a level plane. Borehole casing consists of watertight plastic PVC tubing. The bottom end of the casing is not capped. Dip meter to measure the head in the standpipe manually. It has a sensor at the very end of it. This sensor will detect any presence of water in the borehole. Stopwatch to measure the time taken for any fall in head in the borehole. Readable to 1 second. Datalogger This will automatically measures the heads in the borehole. 3.3.3 Procedure 3.3.3.1 Borehole and casing setup This is the most important steps in the whole procedure. Extra care must be taken to when doing this stage. The borehole is first drilled using the hand auger. The drilling procedure must be done in the direction perpendicular to the ground surface. This is to ensure that the borehole will not be drill at an angle to the ground surface. No drilling fluid was used during the drilling. The diameter of the drilled borehole was 7cm. The bottom of the borehole is then ream and smoothed using a flat auger. The bottom of the borehole must be smooth and flat to ensure proper measurement during the test. The casing is then inserted into the borehole after the borehole preparation was done. The casing used was 5.5cm in diameter. The casing was set parallel to the axis of the borehole and centered by hand. The depth from the top and the bottom of the casing was then measured. The casing is extended 5cm above the ground surface .The borehole is then sealed using a mixture of bentonite and water. The bentonite mixture extended 2-3cm to the ground surface. Extra attention was given to make sure no bentonite spill into the casing. The bentonite was then let to dry (hydration period). The hydration period take approximately atleast 12 hours. The top of the casing was covered to prevent any rainfall, surface runoff or other debris to enter the borehole. In the ASTM International, a flow system and a standpipe should be installed on top of the borehole casing. However, in this project both the flow system and standpipe will not be used. Usually the TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test was conducted to measure the hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay liner which has a very low hydraulic conductivity value. This means that water will flow very slowly into the soil. Since there will only be a very small changes of water level in the borehole for testing a compacted clay liner over a period of one hour, the standpipe will be very useful to measure this difference of water level. However, this will not heavily affect the results of the test. 3.3.3.2 Stage 1 At the start of the test, sock should be inserted into the bottom of the borehole. The purpose of the sock is to protect the soil at the bottom of the casing from disturbance when water is introduced into the casing (ASTM, 1999). However, due to the unavailability of this item, the sock was not used during the whole project. Water is then introduced into the casing slowly to prevent any damage to the soil exposed at the bottom of the casing. The borehole was filled with water until the water level is just above the ground level. This is to check whether the borehole seal is working properly. If there is water flowing out through the seal, this mean that the seal is not working properly. In this case the sealing procedure should be repeated. There are two ways how the rates of water flow into the soil can be measured; (i) manually using a dipmeter and a stopwatch and, (ii) automatically using a datalogger. The measuring procedure is similar to that is apply for falling-head test. For taking the manual reading, the initial water level was first measured using the dipmeter. Record this reading and mark it as time zero. This is when the test is started. Measurements of the water level in the casing were then taken at a given time interval (e.g. for every 5 minutes). In the case of taking the reading automatically, datalogger was used. The datalogger was first set using a computer. The datalogger has the ability to calculate the water depth in the borehole by measuring the atmospheric pressure in the borehole. It also can also measure the water temperature in the borehole. Once the test is terminated, the data in the datalogger is downloaded into a computer. Since the test was conducted on natural soil, the flow of water into the soil is expected to be higher than the test conducted on compacted clay liner. This will mean that water level in the borehole will drop quickly. The test will be terminated once the water in the borehole fully infiltrate into the soil. The data collected from this test is then use to calculate the vertical limiting conductivity (K1) of the soil. The following Hvorslevs equation is used to calculate the value of K1 (Daniel, 1989). With reference to Figure 2.7(a) K1 is calculated as follow: (Equation 21) where; d= the diameter of the standpipe D = the diameter of the borehole casing t1 = time at the start of the test t2 = time at the end of the test H1 = head at the start of the test H2 = head at the end of the test Note must be taken that since the standpipe is not used during the setup, the value of d will then be equal to the value of D. The values of log K1 is then plotted against log time. 3.3.3.3 Stage 2 The Stage 2 of this test can be perform when the Stage 1 have been done. Make sure the water in the borehole from Stage 1 has fully infiltrated into the soil. The borehole is then extended to the specified depth using a smaller diameter hand-auger. The length of the extended borehole (L) depends on the geometry factor to be used. Values that are commonly used are 1.0D, 1.5D and 2.0D; where D is the diameter of the borehole casing (Daniel, 1989). In this project, the default length of the extended borehole used is 1.5D. Water was then introduced into the borehole. The Stage 2 test is then started. It is of the same procedure as the test made in Stage 1 where the rate of water flow into the soil in the borehole is measured with respect to time. As in Stage 1, the test will be terminated once the water in the borehole fully infiltrate into the soil. With reference to Figure 2.7(b), the horizontal limiting conductivity, K2 can then be calculated using the following Hvorslevs equation (Daniel, 1989): (Equation 22) where; As in Stage 1, since no standpipe is used during the setup, the value of d will be equal to the value of D. The values of log K2 is then plotted against log time. 3.4 Field test of the modified TSB test / Boutwell Permeameter 3.4.1 Theory The basic idea of the modified TSB test/Boutwell permeameter setup was to obtain a more simple installation setup which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. The standard TSB test/Boutwell permeameter setup, although proven was effective in measuring the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil, is considered to be of much works. This is mainly because the person who is doing the test have to drill the same borehole twice; once during the Stage 1 and once during the Stage 2. The modified setup of the TSB test/Boutwell permeameter suggested in this report involved only involved a single drilling procedure. The detail setup procedure will be discussed in section 3.5.3. 3.4.2 Equipments All the equipments used for the modified setup was similar to the standard setup. The only different equipment used in the modified setup was the borehole casing. In the standard setup, only one plastic PVC tubing (not capped both ends) was used. In the modified setup, two plastic PVC tubing (not capped both ends) of different diameter sizes were used. The diameter of the bigger pipe and smaller pipe is 5.0cm and 4.5cm respectively. Both the tubes are connected together in a way that it can be adjusted to two different lengths by sliding the smaller size diameter tube into the larger size diameter tube. The connection between the two pipes is ensured to be watertight so that water will not leak through the pipe during the testing stage. An O-Ring (Figure 3.2) was used for this purpose. The O-Ring is inserted in between the bigger size pipe and the smaller size pipe. Figure 3.2 Different sizes of O-Ring (supaseal.co.uk) 3.4.3 Procedures 3.4.3.1 Borehole and casing setup The drilling borehole and casing setup procedure in the modified setup was very similar to the standard setup. The drilling procedure must be done in the direction perpendicular to the ground surface. No drilling fluid was used during the drilling. In the modified setup, the borehole was drilled to a much deeper depth compare to the standard setup. The bottom of the borehole is then ream and smoothed using a flat auger. The bottom of the borehole must be smooth and flat to ensure proper measurement during the test. The modified casing is then inserted into the borehole after the borehole preparation was done. The casing was set parallel to the axis of the borehole and centered by hand. The maximum length of the modified casing is used. The depth from the top and the bottom of the casing is then measured. For the modified TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup, two sealing methods are used. From the bottom of the larger pipe to half of its length, a geo-synthetic clay liner is used. For the remaining half of the larger pipe length a mixture of bentonite powder and water is used. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3 below. Before inserting the bentonite into the borehole, the geo-synthetic liner must first be wetted. Once inserted the bentonite is then let to dry. The hydration period take atleast 12 hours. The top of the casing is covered to prevent any rainfall, surface runoff or other debris to enter the borehole. Figure 3.3 Schematic illustration of Stage 1 of the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test setup Bentonite Geo-synthetic clay liner 4.5cm Ñ„ pipe 5.0cm Ñ„ pipe 3.4.3.2 Stage 1 Figure 3.3 is a schematic illustration of the Stage 1 of the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test setup. Water is first introduced into the casing slowly to prevent any damage to the soil exposed at the bottom of the casing. Once the water inside the casing is almost full, the water depth is noted. This is the initial water depth. The Stage 1 can now be started. The idea of measuring the rate in which the water level in the casing dropped is still the same as in the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test setup. A datalogger is used to measure the water depth in the borehole. The test is terminated once the water in the casing fully infiltrated into the soil. The data from the datalogger is then used to calculate the vertical limiting conductivity, K1 of the soil using Equation 21. The values of log K1 is then plotted against log time. 3.4.3.3 Stage 2 In stage 2 of the standard setup, the borehole is extended using the hand auger. However, in the modified setup instead of drilling the borehole, the smaller diameter tube is raised up by sliding it upward for approximately 1.5 times the diameter of the larger pipe. Since the diameter of the smaller pipe is 5.0cm, therefore the length L will be approximately 7.5cm. The smaller pipe is then slide 7.5cm upward. This will then creates a similar scenario as in the Stage 2 of the standard setup with the extension of the borehole. Figure 3.4 illustrates the Stage 2 of the modified TSB/Boutwell permeameter test setup. Figure 3.4 Schematic illustration of Stage 2 of the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test setup 1.5 x 5.0cm à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€  7.5cm Geo-synthetic clay liner Bentonite 5.0cm diameter pipe 4.5cm diameter pipe Water is then introduced slowly into the casing. The initial water depth inside the casing is noted. It is the same procedure as the test made in Stage 1 where the measurement of the rate of water level dropped in the casing with respect to time is recorded. The only different factor was that both the horizontal and the vertical hydraulic conductivity will take effect. The Stage 2 test is terminated once the water has fully infiltrated into the soil. The data from the datalogger is then used to calculate the horizontal limiting conductivity, K2 of the soil using Equation 22. The values of log K2 is then plotted against log time. 3.5 Calculating horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity The horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity, Kh and Kv respectively, of the tested soil can be calculated from the limiting hydraulic conductivity values of K1 and K2. However, the anisotropy condition of soil must first be taken into account when calculating Kv and Kh by relating the ratio K2/K1 to the degree of anisotropy, m. A value of m must first be selected, where m is defined as follow: (Equation 23) The corresponding value of K2/K1 is then calculated by using the following equation: (Equation 24) Values of K2/K1 are plotted against values of m and L/D and are shown in Figure 3.5 (Daniel, 1989). The value of m that corresponds to the actual K2/K1 value can be determined from this graph. Once the value of m is obtained, the values of Kh and Kv can then be calculated using the following expressions: (Equation 25) (Equation 26) Figure 3.5 3.6 Particle Size Analysis 3.6.1 Theory Particle size analysis, as mention earlier, is the common method practiced to classify the physical properties of the tested soil. There is a very wide range of particle sizes that can be encountered in soil. The main purpose of performing the particle sieve analysis is to define the particle size distributions of the soil. In addition, a number of engineering properties such as permeability, frost, susceptibility and compressibility are related directly or indirectly to particle size characteristics (Whitlow, 2001). There are many ways in which soil analysis can be done. However, the most common and cheapest method is using the sieve analysis. In the case of coarse soil, where the fine particles have been removed or were absent, a dry sieve analysis is done. Here a representative amount of soil sample is passed through a series of standard size sieves arranged in descending order. The weight of soil retained on each individual sieve is determined and the cumulative percentage of the sub-sample weight passing each sieve is calculated. In the case of the soil sample contains fine particles, a wet sieving is first carried out to remove these. Sedimentation test using hydrometer can be done to further classify the particle size distribution in the fine particle fraction. 3.6.2 Equipments Listed below are all the equipments used during the particle sieve analysis. Hydrometer test: Hydrometer Water bath Weighing machine 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve 1000ml measuring cylinder Conical flask Stopwatch Dry sieve analysis: Series of different sizes sieve Weighing machine readable to 0.1g Automatic shaker 3.6.3 Procedures 3.6.3.1 Hydrometer test There are several steps required to be done first before actually doing the hydrometer test. The sample is first dried oven at 105-110C for a day. Once the sample is dried, take a mass of the dried sample and record the mass. The weight sample is then mixed with 100ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution. This solution can be prepared by dissolving 33g of sodium hexametaphosphate and 7g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in distilled water to make 1L of the solution (BS 1377-2, 1990). The purpose of mixing the sample and the solution is to break down the bonding between the different types of soil in a sample. The amount of sample to be mix with the solution depends on the type of the soil. For sandy soil a mass of 100g of the sample is appropriate. For silty and clayey soil, a mass of 50g and 30g respectively are adequate (BS 1377-2, 1990). Once the sample is mixed with the solution, it is left for another day. The next step is to wet sieve the sample through a standard 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve. The sample is put into a 1000ml measuring cylinder through a 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve. The particles that passed through the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve will be retained in the cylinder. A conical flask is used to ensure all the particles passing through the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve will be retained in the cylinder. Water is then added into the cylinder until it reaches the 1000ml graduation mark. The cylinder is then put into the water bath and left for a day. This is to ensure no temperature variation for testing multiple samples. The particles that are retained in the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve will be oven dried again for a day at 105-110C and will be subjected to dry sieve analysis. Before starting the hydrometer test, the sample in the cylinder is shocks thoroughly making sure no particles are left settling on the bottom of the cylinder. After shaking the cylinder, immediately put the cylinder back into the water bath. At the same instant start the stopwatch and the test is started. Put the hydrometer into the cylinder and record the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus. Readings are taken at 0.5min, 1 min, 2min, 4min, 8min, 15min, 30min, 1hr, 2hrs, 4hrs, 8hrs and 24hrs after the start of the test. 3.6.3.2 Dry sieve analysis For the particles that are retained at the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve during the wet sieve, it is subjected to dry sieve analysis. The particles are first weight after they are dried oven. Record the mass of the retained particles. The particles are then passed through a series of standard size sieve arranged in descending order. For this test sieves of size 5mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.425mm, 0.3mm, 0.212mm, 0.15mm, 0.063mm and 0.00mm are used. The particles inside the series of sieve are then shock for about 10-15mins using an automatic shaker. Record the mass of the particles that is retained on each sieve. The data from both the hydrometer test and the dry sieve analysis are then used to define the particle size distribution of the sample. 3.6.4 Calculating hydraulic conductivity The hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be calculated once the particle size distribution is defined. From the particle size distribution, take the sizes of the particle that correspond to d10 and d60. These two values are then put into Equation 14 to calculate the coefficient of grain uniformity U. The porosity n of the soil can be calculated by empirical relationship with U (Equation 13). For the purpose of comparison, different empirical equations are used to calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil. Below are all the empirical equations used: Hazens equation (Equation 8) Kozeny-Carmans equation (Equation 9) Breyers equation (Equation 10) Slitchers equation (Equation 11) The values of n, d10 and kinematic viscosity v are inserted into the above empirical equations to calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil. Chapter 4 Results 4.1 Borehole locations A total of 6 boreholes are installed during the project; three boreholes using the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup and three boreholes using the modified setup. For the standard setup, the boreholes are numbered BH1, BH2 and BH5. For the modified setup, the boreholes are numbered as BH3, BH4 and BH6. The locations of each borehole are shown in Figure 4.1 below. The red circles indicate the borehole with the standard setup whereas the yellow triangles indicate the boreholes with modified setup. The results from all the tests; both from field and laboratory test will be included in the following sub section. BH1 BH5 BH4 BH6 BH2 BH3 Figure 4.1 Locations of the boreholes (Google Map) 4.2 General description of the soil The maximum depth of the borehole used in the test is 1.5m. For the first 0.4m depth, the soil consists of dark brown colour soil. For the remaining of the depth to 1.5m, the soil is reddish-brown in colour predominantly sand and silt. This is as expected for man-made fill since sand is one of the most abundance soils in the on the Earth. This is common for all the boreholes on the site. Small gravels are found occasionally at different depth in all the boreholes. The average soil description of all the boreholes is shown in Figure 4.2 below. Figure 4.2 Average soil description of the site 0.4m 1.3 m 1.5 m Top soil. Dark brown in colour. Consist mainly of sand and some small gravel. Reddish-brown soil. Mixture of sand and silt. Silty sand. Reddish-brown soil. Silty sand with a very little amount of clay. 4.3 Standard TSB test/Boutwell Permeameter All the results from the field and laboratory results for the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test will be presented in this sub-section. Refer to Appendix for the full data on the result for both field and laboratory tests. For the field TSB/Boutwell permeameter test, all the measurements were taken automatically using the datalogger.. 4.3.1 Field test The summary of all the results done with the standard setup, obtained from the field test, is given in Table 2. More detailed results from the field test is given in the following sub-section. Table 2 Summary of the field standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test BH Test Average K1 (m/s) Average K2 (m/s) m Kh (m/s) Kv (m/s) 1 1 1.35 x 10-6 5.78 x 10-7 2 7.60 x 10-7 6.67 x 10-7 3 6.02 x 10-7 0.705 4.8 x 10-7 9.66 x10-7 2 1 9.55 x 10-6 2.42 x 10-6 2 5.06 x 10-6 2.29 x 10-6 3 5.90 x 10-6 2.53 x 10-6 4 1 2.27 x 10-7 2.27 x 10-6 2 5.97 x 10-6 2.55 x 10-6 3 5.16 x 10-6 2.29 x 10-6 4.3.1.1 Stage 1 The result of Stage 1 for all the three boreholes with the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup is shown in the following figure. Figure 4.3 shows the value of log K1 (m/s) plotted against time (min) for; (a) BH1, (b) BH2 and (c) BH4. One similar pattern can be seen when comparing the all the tests within one borehole with the other borehole; the result for Test 1 for each borehole is either lesser or higher than the result for Test 2 and 3 by approximately by half to one order of magnitude. However, the result for Test 2 and 3 for the three boreholes indicate a similar pattern. The values of K1, with respect to time, for both Test 2 and 3 in each borehole are approximately the same. In BH1, the duration of the test for Test 1 is much less compared to Test 2 and Test 3. However, the pattern of the three graphs indicates a similar trend. The average K1 value for BH1 was determine using the data range from t=80 to t=120 minutes for Test 1 and from t=150 to t=200 minutes for Test 2 and 3. In BH2, for the first 20 minutes, all the three tests show a similar pattern. This is shown in Figure 4.3(b). However, in Test 1, the K1 values start to increase after t=20 minutes. For Test 2 and 3, the K1 values only start to increase after t=80 minutes. The average K1 value for BH2 was determine using the data range from t=40 to t=100 minutes for Test 1 and from t=40 to t=130 minutes for Test 2 and 3. In BH4 (Figure 4.3(a)), there is a very large difference between the graphs of Test 1 and both Test 2 and 3. The graphs for Test 2 nd 3 are almost identical. The average K1 value for BH2 was determine using the data range from t=20 to t=35 minutes for Test 1 and from t=30 to t=55 minutes for both Test 2 and 3. 4.3.1.2 Stage 2 The result from Stage 2 of the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test is shown in Figure below. In Stage 2, the graphs for all the tests within one borehole show a similar pattern. For BH1 only two tests were conducted. Three tests were conducted for both BH2 and BH4. In BH1, both the graphs of Test 1 and 2 indicate a similar pattern. This is shown in Figure 4.4(a). There is a sharp drop of K2 value at the start of Test 2. However, the values of K2 for both tests are increasing from the start of the tests towards the end. The average K2 value for BH1 was determine using the data range from t=150 to t=225 minutes. (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 Figure 4.3 Standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter: log K1 against time (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 Figure 4.4 Standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter: log K2 against time (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 Figure 4.4(b) show the results for BH2. Three tests were conducted. For the first 70 minutes of the tests, the values of K2 for all the three tests were decreasing. The values of K2 then start increasing after that time until it reach approximately the 120 minutes time. The K2values than start to decrease again after that. This can be seen for all the three tests. The average K2 value for all the three tests in BH2 was determine using the data range from t=50 to t=80 minutes. Three tests were also conducted in BH4. As can be seen in Figure 4.4(c), the graph patterns for the three tests are almost the same. However, in Test 3, there is a sharp fall of K2 value between t=60 and t=70 minutes. The average K2 value for all the three tests in BH4 was determine using the data range from t=20 to t=60 minutes. 4.3.1.3 Calculation of m, Kh and Kv From the average value of K1and K2, the value of degree of anisotropy (m) is calculated using Equation 24. Once the value of m is calculated, the value of Khand Kv using Equation 25 and 26 respectively. Table 3 below shows the values of m, Kh and Kv obtained from BH1, BH2 and BH4.